Tuesday, 6 February 2018

Slaves and their place in Early Christian Communities



Introduction:
Throughout the history of humankind the slaves are the most pitied person because they have no independent of their own and they have to be under their masters. They are economically deprived and socially oppressed people. Looking at the status of the slaves throughout generations their condition is always the same. This paper will discuss on the status of slaves and their place in the early Christian communities.

1. Social class and Slaves in the Greco-Roman world:
The social class during the early century has been divided into upper class and lower class. The upper classes comprise of the senatorial order, the equestrian order, decurions. The senators were magistrates who were from the aristocratic family of the Roman state. The senators were appointed by the emperor as representatives from all over the Roman Empire. They held the highest position in government offices and administered the provinces. The equestrians were originally land owners. They were the rich Romans who did not enter political or military life. The wealth of equestrians was usually built from agriculture.[1]  Decurions were provincial monied aristocrats. They obtained their wealth through inheritance, landowning, trading and manufacturing. They served as magistrates on local council which was the highest local authority. Decurions collected taxes, supervised markets and served as ambassadors. If the decurions did his job well, the emperor could promote him to equestrian order.[2]

The lower classes constitute the vast majority of the population. This lower class comprises of landowners of small farms and business, free poor, freedman, slaves. There were also small land owners, craftsmen, shopkeepers and soldiers within the lower classes. However, none of these formed a middle class.[3] The society of the early Christianity displayed a mixture of class consciousness and social mobility. A big gulf separated the few wealthy and poor masses. At the bottom of the social division were the slaves. The Greeks and the Romans felt no responsibility for the poor and slaves. They considered that their poverty and their status were supposed to be the will of gods or the result of their own folly. The slaves were always the downtrodden people in the society.[4] Production and trade was mostly carried out by the slaves. The slaves were not counted as person but as ‘chattel’ in which the master could deal as he chose to do. He could decide on purchase or sale and cold treat the slave as he wished. Sometimes as for their punishment the slaves were condemned to fight with wild beasts. There were considerable numbers of slaves since many prisoners of war were brought to Rome and sold there. The price of a slave was small for which the wealthy people could own great number of slaves for their own.[5]

The Roman world was full of slaves. It has been estimated that in Rome itself at one point of time, about one-third of the inhabitants belonged to this social class. They had become slaves as prisoners of war, as condemned men, through debt, through kidnapping or, as those who had been sold into slavery by their parents. Besides these, many were born into slavery.[6] The status and condition of slaves was so pitiful and they were having no freedom of their own. They have to be under the control of their masters.

2. The status of the early Christian Communities:
The social status of the early Christianity was so low and desperate. In the second century the pagans saw Christianity as the religion of the “foolish, dishonourable and stupid, and that Christianity was the religion of only slaves, women and little children.” This is because the early Christians were socially disadvantaged, poor, uneducated and dispossessed within Roman society. However some early Christians were also wealthy as indicated by their possession of the houses which are able to accommodate church meetings, ownership of slaves and ability to travel. Some Christians were also rich patrons who accommodated Paul and arranging church meeting in their homes. (Acts 12:12, 16:15, 17:5-9, 18:7).[7] As we have known there was some wealthy Christian in the early community, and they used to provide meeting place for the Christians in their houses. There were poor people (1 Cor.1:28, 11:22), domestic slaves were also there (1 Cor.7:21-23). So the Christians in the early community were comprised of the poor, slaves as well as the well to do people.[8]

3. Slaves and their place in the Early Christian communities:
The condition of slaves in the Greco-Roman society was pathetic and they were facing lots of hardships and difficulties. We will further look at some of the details of the social status and the conditions of the slaves and their lifestyle during the early Christianity in brief as follows.

3.1. Occupation of Slaves:
Slaves could be seen in every occupation. The men who maintained the furnaces in the baths were often slaves. The women who served beer in beer shops were often slaves. Slaves worked in pottery factories and on farms, in mines and as shepherds. In smaller establishments a slave might have multiple jobs. The staffs of larger households included slaves who managed the accounts and oversaw other slaves as well as slaves who carried household waste to public dump sites.[9] Slaves were to be seen everywhere in all ranks of garment workers, from weavers to dyers to seamstresses. Along with labour in workshops, fields, and markets, slaves advanced their “owners’ financial ends through serving as financial agents and managers of all kinds.” Along with producing clothes for sale, a slave skilled in wool working could also produce clothing for members of the household.[10] Thus, we can say that the slaves were employed everywhere and they work in different occupation for their survival.

3.2. Patrons and clients:
In the Romans society the wealthy act as a patron to protect the lower class people as far as he could support in every possible ways. And in return the client supported his patron in doing odd jobs and working for him, escorts him through the streets. The patron-client system becomes hereditary and patrons continued to support clients as a measure of their status.[11] The client was supposed to support his patron whenever he went to the court. Court cases were heard outside usually and since ballots were not used in the courts, “the jury would be swayed by a vociferous audience.” Even the slaves in wealthy house are known to have clients who were hoping that the slave would use his influence with his owner to secure favours for the client. The client used to have received a little amount of money from his patron for his daily expenses.[12]

3.3. Family life among slaves:
In the ancient times there were slaves who does not have quarter or place to stay. They were dependent on their masters. The slaves used lived outside the households of their owners. In some cases slaves live with their owners. In some larger houses there are separate slave quarters but smaller houses does not have quarters for the slaves. The role of the slaves in the household was big and his responsibility was to work for the well being of the family.  In addition to attending children, preparing food, working on accounts, the slaves would have been found in everywhere of the house during the hours of work.[13] In spite of these hectic schedules it was believed that slaves used to spare some time and spent with their families. We do not know when slave families made time for one another or how they managed to find a place for that time together. But the study of ancient inscription evidence suggests that many slaves do have time together with their family.[14]

3.4. Slaves as “live property”:
            The place of slave in the early century was so low and desperate. They were not counted as human being but they are counted and compared with non living things. They are counted as one of the property. The master’s authority and right over his slaves reflects a dual conception of slavery. Firstly, slaves were classified as property. Aristotle discusses and describes the slave as “live property” and a “living tool” of the master. In his description Aristotle reflects a view which was widely held in Classical Greece. G. R. Morrow notes that the slaves were frequently called “human footed stock”.[15] In the Laws, Plato discusses slave ownership in the context of a general section of property rights. Secondly, the law also recognised the slave as a person in certain respects. One common term for slave is “oiketeis” a term which reflects the notion of the slave’s membership in the household. So the householder has a moral obligation to rule justly in the case of his slaves just like he treat his wife and children.[16] There are in some instances where the master treats the slaves the way their sons and daughter are being treated. However, looking from the bigger and wider perspectives, the conditions and situations of the slaves was disgraceful. Such was the condition of the slaves during the early century.

3.5. Slaves as Educator:
As school was not there at the time of the early century the family had to arrange and provide educations for their children. A slave was made responsible to look after the education of the children in various ways. The means of educating and the responsibility of looking after the children depend on the slaves. The slaves had to supervise the children, and should accompany him in instruction. He should also protect them from any possible dangers and also keep an eye to them for proper behaviour and conduct. If the necessary arise, the slaves should also do correction on them. His duty was to look after the behaviour of the child. This slave was called “the pedagogue” not in the sense of teacher but in the sense of disciplinarian.[17]

4. Paul’s view on Slave:
In the book of 1 Corinthians in 11, we see that there was social distinction between the socially advantaged people and socially disadvantaged people. The socially advantaged group were the rich and the socially disadvantaged group were the poor and the slaves. Paul was rebuking the Corinthians that there should not be any social distinction especially when they come for the Lord’s Supper.[18] In the Corinthian church there was to some extent division taking place between the haves and the have not’s. In 1 Cor.11:18, we see Paul saying, “I hear that divisions exist among you,” and this division is the division between the rich and the poor/slaves in the church. In the partaking of the Lord’s Supper, usually the rich began eating ahead of the poor and when the poor and slaves arrive there used to be no leftover for them. They are late probably the poor freedman getting off from work and slaves who had no control over their personal schedule.[19] So, the poor and the slaves were the one who were always having less opportunity and privilege.

According to Paul, a slaves who have become Christians are free to understand themselves as no longer slaves to human masters because they are the Lord’s freed persons (1 Cor. 7:22-23). However, this freedom is not supposed to be taken in literal freedom. The best example can be employed here on Onesimus who was the slave of Philemon. Philemon was considering his slave as his brother as found in Phil.1:16.[20] Onesimus returned to his owner. Paul was hoping that Philemon will not require of it and Paul expects that new relationship between Onesimus and Philemon to be predicted on their now being brothers in Christ (Phil.16).[21] However, Paul was saying that this relationship should not be taken as advantage by the slaves over their masters. He should continue to serve his master and at the same time, the master should love his servant.

5. Slaves and their place in the Pastorals:
In Titus 2:9ff and 1 Tim. 6:1ff we see the exhortations to slaves in which it is said that all slaves should consider their master worthy of full respects. In Titus 2:9 the slaves are urged to “be subject to everything” to their masters and in 1 Tim.6:1, they are exhorted to view their masters as “worthy of all honour.” In Titus 2:9 Titus is urged to warn slaves not to be back talkers or pilferers. This admonitions and warnings convey a sense of great social distance from slaves and ‘underlying contempt for them as a class.’[22] The slave must comply with the wishes of his master, “in every respect.” From morning until evening and in every category of work the slave must be submissive to his master. This phrase “in every respect” must not be taken in the absolute sense, as if the apostle meant to say that even then when the master demanded of the slave that he tell a lie or commit thievery, adultery, or murder, the latter must obey.[23] Slaves accordingly must be eager to please, well-pleasing. The negative aspect of being well-pleasing is not talking back.[24] The slaves must be well pleasing to his masters and he should show his trustworthiness as well.  
In 1 Tim.6:1 we can notice about a special exhortation addressed to slaves with Christian masters. These slaves are warned not to be guilty of disrespect for their masters on the ground that their masters are brothers. Timothy urges slaves not to lose respect for their masters on the ground that the latter are “brother’ but to serve them more diligently because they are faithful and beloved.[25] The attitude of the slave toward their master should be of full respect even though his master is an unbelieving master.[26]  Slaves are to respect their masters not because slavery is a proper institution. Rather, the slaves should respect their masters because the success of the “gospel is more significant than the lot of any one individual,” and therefore slaves should behave in a way that does not bring reproach on the gospel.[27]  
Another feature of slave exhortations in the Pastorals has to do with their approach to characterizing the slave’s service as Christian service. Slaves are to be obedient, “in order that they may adorn the teaching of God our saviour in everything,” (Titus 2:10). By obeying their masters, they could adorn the teaching i.e. they could enhance the reputation of the church and its teaching.[28]

Reflection and Conclusion:
We have discuss and seen the status and the place of slaves beginning from the early century. The condition of the slaves was so pathetic and discouraging especially during the Greco-Roman period. They were at the bottom place of the society and do not have any freedom of their own. They have been treated as inhumanly and people do not regarded them as human but they were regarded as property. They had to work as labourers in order to survive. They had to obey the order of their masters and if he is not seen faithful in his duty, then he was given punishment again. The Romans were totally dependent on the slaves in terms of economy of the land, works and so many other means of labour. Such was the condition of the slaves during the early century. As a Christian how are we to response and reflect on these issues of slaves. As we have seen in the book of Galatians in 3:28 that “There is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.” In the side of God everyone is equal and no one should be treated differently just because he or she is from different background, or a person is poor.


Bibliography:
Barton, Bruce B. David Veerman, and Neil S.Wilson. 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus. Life
Application Bible Commentary. Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, 1993.

Bell, Albert A. A Guide to the New Testament World. Scottdale: Herald, 1994.

Collins, Raymond F. First Corinthians. Sacra Pagina Series. Edited by Daniel J, Harrington;
Minnesota: Liturgical, 1999.

Ferguson, Everett. Backgrounds of Early Christianity. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans,
1987.

Garland, David E. 1 Corinthians. Baker Exegetical Commentary on New Testament. Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Baker, 2003.

Glancy, Jennifer A. Slavery in Early Christianity. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Hendriksen, William and Simon J. Kistemaker. Exposition of the Pastoral Epistles. New
Testament Commentary 4. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker, 2001. 

Kidd, Reggie M. Wealth and Beneficence in the Pastoral Epistles. Society of Biblical
Literature Dissertation Series. Georgia: Scholars, 1990.

Lohse, Eduard. The New Testament Environment. Translated by John E. Steely. Nashville:
Abingdon, 1976.

Mounce, William D. Pastoral Epistles. Word Biblical Commentary 46. Dallas: Word, 2002.

Murrow, G. R. Plato’s Law of Slavery in its relation to Greek Law. Urbana: University of
Illinois Press, 1889.

Verner, David C. The Household of God: The Social World of the Pastoral Epistles.
California: Scholars Press, 1991.   

Watson, D.F.  “Roman Social Classes.” Dictionary of the New Testament Background.
Edited  by Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter. Illinois: InterVarsity, 2000. 999-1004.

Witherington III, Ben. Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary
on 1 and 2 Corinthians. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1995.

Wu, Siu Fung. Suffering in Romans. Oregon: Wipf and Stock, 2015.


[1] Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1987), 42-43.
[2] Siu Fung Wu, Suffering in Romans (Oregon: Wipf and Stock, 2015), 32.
[3] D.F. Watson, “Roman Social Classes,” DNTB (eds. Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter; Illinois: InterVarsity, 2000), 1002.
[4] Albert A. Bell, A Guide to the New Testament World (Scottdale: Herald, 1994), 187.
[5] Eduard Lohse, The New Testament Environment (trans. John E. Steely; Nashville: Abingdon, 1976), 212-213.
[6] William Hendriksen and Simon J. Kistemaker, Exposition of the Pastoral Epistles (NTC 4; Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker, 2001), 190.
[7] Watson, “Roman Social Classes,” 1003.
[8] Ben Witherington III, Conflict and Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1995), 22.
[9] Jennifer A. Glancy, Slavery in Early Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 42.
[10] Glancy, Slavery in Early Christianity, 43-44.
[11] Bell, A Guide to the New Testament World, 193.
[12] Bell, A Guide to the New Testament World, 193-194.
[13] Glancy, Slavery in Early Christianity, 45.
[14] Glancy, Slavery in Early Christianity, 46.
[15] G. R. Murrow, Plato’s Law of Slavery in its relation to Greek Law (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1889), 31-32, cited by David C. Verner, The Household of God: The Social World of the Pastoral Epistles (California: Scholars Press, 1991), 30.
[16] David C. Verner, The Household of God: The Social World of the Pastoral Epistles (California: Scholars Press, 1991), 30.
[17] Lohse, The New Testament Environment, 214.
[18] Raymond F. Collins, First Corinthians (SPS; ed. Daniel J, Harrington; Minnesota: Liturgical, 1999), 417.
[19] David E. Garland, 1 Corinthians (BECNT; Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker, 2003), 540.
[20] Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 47.
[21] Reggie M. Kidd, Wealth and Beneficence in the Pastoral Epistles (SBLDS; Georgia: Scholars, 1990), 164.
[22] Verner, The Household of God: The Social World of the Pastoral Epistles, 140.
[23] Hendriksen and Kistemaker, Exposition of the Pastoral Epistles, 368.
[24] Hendriksen and Kistemaker, Exposition of the Pastoral Epistles, 369.
[25] Verner, The Household of God: The Social World of the Pastoral Epistles, 143.
[26] Bruce B. Barton, David Veerman, and Neil S.Wilson, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy, Titus (LABC; Illinois: Tyndale House Publishers, 1993), 114.
[27] William D.Mounce, Pastoral Epistles (WBC 46; Dallas: Word, 2002), 327.
[28] Verner, The Household of God: The Social World of the Pastoral Epistles, 144.

Signs in the Gospel of John



Introduction:
The first twelve chapters of the Gospel of John are known as the ‘Book of Signs.’ It gives a picture of the public ministry of Jesus performed by signs, conversations, and discourses with the aim of revealing the Father to the world. The structure and message of John focuses on the “signs,” which points to the truths about the person of Jesus. In this paper, we shall discuss the ‘signs’ in the Fourth Gospel, the nature and function of the signs and its significance.  

1. Terminology:
‘Signs’ (Semeia in Greek) is the term used to designate the miracles of Jesus in the Fourth Gospel (2:11; 4:54; 6:14; 9:16). The term ‘Signs’ appears seventeen times in John’s Gospel and refers to Jesus’ signs (miracles).[1] The Synoptic Gospels use the terms ‘works of wonder’ (erata) and ‘mighty works’ (Dunameis).[2] The word ‘Semeion’ is a developed form of ‘Semeia’, which is always connected with an object, or situation that brings a precise awareness or insight in itself. This word stresses the functional characteristic of the miraculous event.[3]  A sign is manifestation of God's work in the world through the person of Jesus.[4] Maurice F. Wiles explains, “The word ‘sign’ is used of things which are indicative of something beyond the mere fact of their occurrence.” The phrase ‘signs and wonders’ is not a mere “tautology,” as one can differentiate in thought between the “symbolic and the marvellous aspect of any miracle.” The miracles in the Fourth Gospel are so clearly and carefully referred as signs that show uncertainly that they require a “deeper, spiritual interpretation.”[5] According to Craig C. Keener, “A ‘sign’ signified something beyond itself, and functioned as a proof or attestation; thus the term appears in rhetoric as well as in the context in which we employ it.” The signs play a vital role to persuade the readers to believe in Jesus. It is a manifestation through the person of Jesus, of God’s work into the world.[6]   

2. Signs source:
There were many theories proposed to reveal the sources of the Gospel. The earliest were A. Faure and H. H. Wedt, who proposed two sources behind the Gospel, ‘a narrative source and a discourse source.’ Later, Bultmann proposed three sources- ‘the sign source, the revelatory source, and the passion narrative source.’ R. T. Fortna further developed the ‘sign source’ into a ‘sign gospel.’ The basis for the proposal of a source comes from the account of signs in John 2:11 and 4:54 and from the reference to ‘many other signs that Jesus did,’ in John 20:30.[7] Bultman and R. T. Fortna ascribe the signs mentioned in John to a source called “Signs Source” which John took over. Some scholars accepted it while some rejected it by doubting whether such a source existed. According to Bultmann, the signs source written in Greek with Hellenistic influences consists of the seven signs (2:1-11; 4:46-54; 5:2-9; 6:1-15; 6:16-21; 9:1-12; 11:1-44).[8] With reference to the story of the call of the first disciples, the materials dispensed to the signs-source by both Bultmann and Fortna is almost the same. [9] Some have drawn parallels between Mark and John’s signs sources. According to Craig C. Keener, the best single argument for supposing the existence of a Johannine sign source is the state that such documents existed elsewhere in ancient times, for instance, as ‘aretalogies.’[10]  

3. The nature and function of the Signs:
The Johannine use of miracle tradition differs from the Synoptic in a number of ways, and these differences are bound to have significance. Most importantly, the very designation of mighty works or miracles as signs suggests that they intend to imply who Jesus is. John differs from the Synoptics in the presentation of the ‘signs’ as a means to evoke belief in Jesus. After the first ‘sign’, Jesus’ disciples believed in him (2:11). Although John differs from the Synoptics in the nature of the ‘signs,’ his use of ‘signs’ is not entirely conflicting to the Synoptic presentation, for in Mark the mighty deeds of Jesus clearly evokes the mind of the reader the question of ‘who Jesus is.’[11] Signs primarily serve as a positive, revelatory function in the Fourth Gospel. They testify Jesus’ identity although they do not control one’s response or response to the Spirit’s testimony in the world (10: 32, 37-38; 14:10-11; 20:29-31). It is therefore Christological in context as they interpret Jesus’ identity and ‘call for faith.’ John also states that the first and the last signs of Jesus’ earthly ministry in the Fourth Gospel reveal his “glory” which is manifested in the cross (12:23-25, 28-33), and the death-resurrection complex becomes the ultimate sign (2:18-21).[12] 

Origen explains the nature of the sign by quoting Jn. 2:4 where Jesus said “.....My hour has not yet come,” to mean that the suitable hour for his signs had not yet arrived because the signs are for unbelief. In addition, unbelief can be said to be present where there has already been preaching- a ministry on which Christ had not yet started at that time. Secondly, Origen affirms that every sign in the Old Testament looks forward to something in the New, whereas the ‘signs’ refer either to something in the age to come or to some historical occurrence subsequent to the time of the sign itself.[13] Signs are directly or indirectly related to believing. The evangelist habitually regards signs as events, which intend to create faith in unbelievers, though they may also serve as an agent to deepen the faith of the believers. Usually the ‘signs’ were performed before unbelievers in order to make them believe and have faith in Jesus Christ.[14]

4. Seven Signs in the Fourth Gospel:
4.1. The changing of water into wine (John 2:1-11): This is the first miracle Jesus did at Cana of Galilee and manifested his glory. He seemed reluctant to accede to His mother's suggestion and indicated that His action from that time onward would be regulated by His "hour" (2:4). He implied that He was living by a divine schedule that fixed the timing of all His activities and that He could not do something merely to fulfil a request. The fact that He performed the miracle indicated that it accorded with the purpose of God in sending Him into the world. By one word of command He accomplished the transformation that a vine requires several months to produce.[15] This demonstrated power and master over quality by carrying out result of vine produces over a period of months instantly. When the disciple saw Jesus miracle they believed. The miracle showed his power over nature and revealed the way He would go about His ministry helping other, speaking with authority, and being in personal touch with people.[16] The significance of the sign shows in the effect that it produced. The individuals had seen the wonders with their physical eyes and they were able to portray the person of Jesus and draw a conclusion that a superior being was among them who has proof his claims by His deed of compassion and supremacy.[17] The One who changed the water into wine is the same who created this world.

4.2. The healing of the nobleman's son (John 4:46-54): Jesus was approached by a nobleman who petitioned Him to intervene on behalf of his son, who lay seriously ill about twenty miles distant in Capernaum. Jesus said, "Unless you people see signs and wonders, you simply will not believe" (4:48).  The genuine concern of the latter prompted Jesus' reply: "Go your way; your son lives" (4:50). Responding in faith, the nobleman retraced his steps to Capernaum to learn en route that his son had been healed. Jesus had transcended the nobleman's highest expectation; for although He did not visit the sick child, He gave proof that distance was no obstacle to His power.[18] This is incredible power demonstrated by healing the Nobleman`s son who was at great distance. Jesus proves himself the master of space and distance. This was a sign to all people that Jesus is not just a mere man but divine. This miracle enables the faith of the noble man and his family to grow. The ability and faith the nobleman put to work and the confidence of his words to Jesus shows the boldness of his trust that Jesus is the only answers to such case. The purpose of John gospel is for people to believe in Christ divinity. The scriptures proofs that the nobleman increase in faith that led him committed himself and his household wholeheartedly to Jesus. Belief is obedience to the utterance of God just exactly what the nobleman did. Believe is thus defined as commitment to authority.[19]

4.3. The healing of the man at Bethesda (John 5:1-10): The third sign in John's narrative occurred in Jerusalem. In this instance, Jesus took the initiative and approached a man who had been waiting at the Pool of Bethesda for thirty-eight years. Jesus questioned him gently in order to ascertain whether he really desired healing. It was a test of the man's will; and at Jesus' command he stood and walked. He was so completely healed that he put his bedroll on his shoulder and walked away. Jesus demonstrated His power over the ravages of time; for a paralytic of thirty-eight years would normally be incurable.[20] Jesus instantly cures the man demonstrating his power over time. The expectation of the impotent man was somebody needed to help him into the pool when the water bubbled in other to achieve the miraculous powers. From Jesus close examination, His assessment shows that the impotent man was bound by his circumstances and could not rise higher than pointless complaint.[21] But Christ shows compassion on those who are helpless. The authority of Jesus and the command over the sickness bring an instant turning around over his helplessness in body, hope, faith and spirit. Jesus said, “Rise take up thy bed, and walk. And immediately the man was made whole and walked. This is unusual miracles that brought a new faces into the gospel of believe.[22] Through this event we can know that Jesus Christ can heal all existing conditions.

4.4. The feeding of the five thousand (John 6:1-15): The fourth sign is the feeding of the five thousand. This event brought to Jesus the largest audience to which He ever spoke. Those who partook of the food Jesus provided included five thousand men, to say nothing of women and children (Matt. 14:21). Jesus multiplied the bread and fish until everyone in the crowd was satisfied. The discourse on the Bread of Life spoke of spiritual not material sustenance. Furthermore, His declaration, "Unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink His blood, ye have no life in yourselves" (6:53), mystified them. The interpretation of the sign which had been given to demonstrate His sufficiency for human need proved to be an insurmountable obstacle to their faith. This event is incredible beyond human expectation, even though the disciples who have being with him cannot still confidently succumbed to the situation even though the master is with them. But Jesus Christ who is the master of quantity proofs beyond the reactions of the disciples. The miraculous multiplications by the hand of Jesus in breaking the bread and fish into edible fragments is call the work of a sign and the prophetic of Jesus` sufficiency in the midst of deficiency, and of His ability to make sacred meagreness gratify the need of the starving. The amazing things the audience reaction is to make Jesus their king, the messiah which is the main theme and the significance of John gospel.[23]

4. 5. The walking on the water (John 6:16-21): Closely connected with the feeding of the five thousand was the sign of walking on the water. In this event only the disciples were involved. Jesus had sent the disciples back to Capernaum by boat across the Sea of Galilee. As they rowed with their backs to the wind, they suddenly noticed a human figure approaching them across the lake. They were terrified and cried out in fear. When Jesus approached them, He said, "It is I; do not be afraid" (6:20). He wanted them to learn that He was Master of the forces of nature and that He could avert what seemed to be inevitable peril. His presence would be the permanent guarantee of their safety.[24] Jesus shows power over nature. This is incredible event that created fear to Jesus Christ disciples. The event has a significant meaning to the disciples why they have the ideas of the weather, this made them to sail before Jesus came, and they could not afford to take risk. I could not imagine how they expected Jesus to join them if they finally cross over. I believe Jesus allowed this to happen to them so that they can understand his deity and power over nature. Also Jesus expected them to act in their faith as they saw him approaching them instead they were afraid. Faith is a mindset that expects God to act when we act upon this expectation, we can overcome our fears. John saw this miracle as a incredible event that proof Christ authority over nature, that is why himself included it in his gospel of believe.[25]

4.6. The healing of the blind man (John 9:1-41): The affliction of the man born blind was not a casual illness that suddenly became acute but was congenitally blind. The healing took place in Jerusalem, where the hostility to Jesus still lingered because of His previous healing on the Sabbath. There was direct conflict between Jesus and the ecclesiastical authorities on this question, and Jesus' entire work was challenged. The Pharisees questioned the identity of the Healer, His authority, His method, His ethics, and His origin.[26] This “sign” is thus a pattern of growing faith and illustrates Jesus’ power to change human destiny as He continues the Father's work. He not only restores sight to the body, but He could also evoke spiritual perception within a man who seemed to be the victim of an unjust fate. Jesus anointing a blind man since his birth with clay and he received his sight by obedient. This is power over disaster or misfortune.[27] If the healing miracles show Jesus releasing individual people from the power of sin, the nature miracles show Jesus doing the same for the whole of creation. This is to prove that Jesus has power over the power of sin that lead to sickness that is He is the life giver, the giver of eternal life to them that believe in him.[28]

4.7. The raising of Lazarus (John 11:1-44): The last of the signs in the sevenfold series is the raising of Lazarus. It occurred shortly before Jesus' death. The prayer at the graveside was revelatory of Jesus' relation to the Father. He did not frantically implore divine intervention but rather calmly offered thanks for what He considered to be a completed fact. He took for granted that God had already done what He had requested and so commanded Lazarus to come out of the tomb. His demand that the disciples believe was reinforced by the example of His own assurance that God had already answered prayer in spite of contrary appearances. That faith was justified by the sudden appearance of Lazarus from the tomb, brought back to life by the dynamic energy of divine power.[29] This sign concludes the series intended to demonstrate the divine attitude and power manifested in Jesus. It declares Him to be the Master of man's last and most implacable enemy, death. By illustrating the meaning of His declaration, "I am the resurrection and the life; he who believes in me shall live even if he dies" (John 11:25), it creates new hope. This miracle shows Jesus was the master of death. His transcended control over dead is unquestionably.[30]  

5. The Book of Signs:
The first part of the Gospel of John (Ch.1-12) is dominated by the idea of God's revelation to people by the signs which Christ worked. This first part (ch.1-12) of John’s Gospel is called the Book of Signs. The Book of Signs is so called because it features the seven signs of Jesus during his public ministry. The signs are invitations by Christ for men to interpret their deeper spiritual meaning. They are sufficient to awaken faith in the one who sees but this takes faith which is both God's gift and man's willingness to receive the gift. Those who do not recognize this deeper spiritual meaning are blind and deaf. Those who in humility see God's finger in these signs recognize them as the works of God and give their faith to the person who performs them- Christ-not only as the envoy of God but as the very Son of God. They come to recognize by faith the glory which is in Christ, the incarnate Word.[31]

In addition to the specific seven signs in the Gospel of John, there are some additional signs as well. The following are some of the signs and it includes: Jesus’ cleansing of the temple (2:14-17), the anointing of Jesus (12:1-8), the triumphal entry (12:12-16), Jesus’ crucifixion and resurrection (ch.18-19), the miraculous catch of fish (21:1-14).[32] One of the most noted characteristics of the Gospel of John is the identification of Jesus miraculous deeds as signs. Unlike other Gospels, John includes a select number of signs, but tells us that there were many others (20:30). John tells us the reason in 20:31 saying, “these things are written so that you might believe that Jesus is the Christ, the son of God and that believing you might have life in his name.” The signs theme goes far beyond the well known seven signs. These signs recorded in the Gospel of John serve the purpose of separating out those who believe and those who do not as indicated in the prologue (1:10-12).[33] So, the signs theme has a great deal to do with the relationship between an act of Jesus and the perceptions of different people on the significance of the act. These signs in the Gospel of John are the precipitating factor leading to a discussion of who Jesus is. These signs are important and significant in that Jesus revealed his glory through the performance of the act.[34]

6. The significance of Signs in John’s Gospel:
These signs were important to understand Christ superiority over the factors of life with which human is unable to handle. The event of signs revealed the proof of his deity and key to understand the purpose of eternal life as Christ is both eternal and human. However, the purposes of these signs are for the person to believe in God as well as Jesus is the son of God that they may have life in his name as it is carefully defined by Jesus in (John17:3). John Teter said the purpose of the signs is to bring Christian to the absolute assurance of their salvation. Moreover, his purpose is to lead these to faith which prove that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, that by believing they may have life in his name.[35]

The signs did by Jesus was not for his personal gain, rather for the glory of God which He shared as God`s Son (John 1:14). The same subject happens in other signs where Jesus requires praise to be given to God and not to himself (John 11:4). Signs not only proclaim the appearance of the kingdom only but explained some facts which are grouped into three sections; each of these expresses a different aspect of Jesus event. They declare the meaning of the kingdom for individuals, for the world as a whole, and its future consequences and consummation.[36] John depict the primary evidence of selected signs revealed who Jesus is and reason to believe in him. Thus, revealed His glory and his disciples believed in him.[37] The glory is the divine glory of the only son of God; the signs are the works of God which should lead to faith (John 2:11; 1:14; 10: 25). The essence of signs is to see Jesus as God over all and not just to admit him as Just Man but the very invisible God in the flesh who have the capacity to save the whole creation.[38]

Conclusion:
The signs are important means to the Self-Revelation of God through His Son Jesus Christ. We have seen that there are also other signs apart from the selected seven miracles or signs. These signs are thus an integral part of John's Gospel. They contribute evidence concerning Jesus' person and position as the Incarnate Word. They prepare the mind of the reader for the final section on the Passion by showing that Jesus has shared every aspect of human life. Jesus final victory over the resurrection was the greatest sign of all. These signs are samples of what He can do for those who trust Him and of the life that He confers on those who believe on His name. Jesus draws people into his reality through the use of signs. Through these signs people are given the opportunities to know God and experience genuine faith. In the Gospel of John, the signs are very significant element in the ministry of Jesus and it reveals the glory of God through it.


Bibliography:
Brown, D. A. “The 7 Miracles of Jesus Recorded in the Gospel of John.” In Basic             Christian         Today (2015): 1-13.   
Brown, R. E. The Gospel According to John, vol. 29. The Anchor Bible. New York:          Doubleday, 1966.  
Bultmann, R. The Gospel of John: A Commentary. Translated by G. R. Beasley-Murray, R.          W. N. Hoare, and J. K. Ricker. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1971.
Freed, E. D., & Hunt, Russell B. “Fortna’s Signs-Source in John.” In Journal of Biblical    Literature  94/2 (1975): 563-569.  
Guthrie, D. “The Importance of Signs in the Fourth Gospel.” In Vox Evangelica 5             (1967): 72-      83.
Kanakaraj, J. J., & Kemp, Ian S. Gospel of John. Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 2000.
Keener, C. C. The Gospel of John, vol.1. Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 2003.
Kostenberger, A. J. The Missions of Jesus and The Disciples according to The Fourth        Gospel. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1988.   
Martyn, J. L. History and Theology in the Fourth Gospel. Nashville: Abingdon, 1979.
Mlakuzhyil, G. Abundant Life: In the Gospel of John. Delhi: ISPCK, 2007.
Morris, L. The Gospel According to John. New International Commentary on the New      Testament. Edited by B. Stonehouse. Michigan: Eerdmans, 1995.  
Nicol, W. The Sources in the Fourth Gospel: Tradition and Reaction. London: Brill, 1972.
Painter, R. J. The Gospel of John: A Thematic Approach. Oregon: Wipf & Stock,   2011.
Raja, J. J. Did Jesus Feed Five Thousand People: Hermeneutical Secrets of John’s             Gospel. Delhi: ISPCK, 2007.  
Rao, O. M. The Fourth Gospel: Essays and Exegetical Notes on Selected Passages.            Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 1998.
Riga, P. “The Use of ‘Sëmeion’ in St. John's Gospel.” In Interpretation (2007): 402-423.
Santram, P. B. “The Purpose of St. John’s Gospel: The Spread of the Good News.” In India’s      Search for Reality and the Relevance of the Gospel of John. Edited by Christopher       Duraisingh & Cecil Hargreaves. Delhi: ISPCK, 1975.
Schnackenburg, R. The Gospel According to John, vol. 1. New York: Crossroad, 1990.
Selvaggio, A. T. The Seven Signs: Seeing the Glory of Christ in the Gospel of John.            Grand Rapids, Michigan: Reformation Heritage, 2010.
Smalley, S. John: Evangelist & Interpreter. Cumbria: Paternoster, 1998.  
Smith, D. M. Theology of the Gospel of John. Cambridge: CUP, 1992.  
Tenney, M. C. “The Meaning of the Signs.” In Bibliotheca Sacra 132 (April, 1975): 145-   60.
Teter, J. The Gospel of John: The Seven Signs of Jesus.” In Evangelical Covenant           (January, 2012): 1-34.  
Thompson, M. M. “Signs and Faith in the Fourth Gospel.” In Bulletin for Biblical Research 1      (1991): 89-108.
Wiles, M. F. The Spiritual Gospel: The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel in the Early      Church. London: Cambridge University Press, 1960.


[1] G. Mlakuzhyil, Abundant Life: In the Gospel of John (Delhi: ISPCK, 2007), 331.
[2] O. M. Rao, The Fourth Gospel: Essays and Exegetical Notes on Selected Passages (Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 1998), 118.
[3] J. J. Raja, Did Jesus Feed Five Thousand People: Hermeneutical Secrets of John’s Gospel (Delhi: ISPCK, 2007), 9.
[4] M. M. Thompson, “Signs and Faith in the Fourth Gospel,” in BBR 1 (1991): 94.  
[5] M. F. Wiles, The Spiritual Gospel: The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel in the Early Church (London: Cambridge University Press, 1960), 41.
[6] C. C. Keener, The Gospel of John, vol.1 (Massachusetts: Hendrickson, 2003), 251.
[7] Raja, Did Jesus Feed Five Thousand People, 35.
[8] J. J. Kanakaraj & Ian S. Kemp, Gospel of John (Bangalore: Theological Book Trust, 2000), 30.
[9] E. D. Freed & R. B. Hunt, “Fortna’s Signs-Source in John,” in JBL 94/2 (1975): 566
[10] Keener, The Gospel of John, 253.
[11] D. M. Smith, Theology of the Gospel of John (Cambridge: CUP, 1992), 107.
[12] Keener, The Gospel of John, 275-276.
[13] Wiles, The Spiritual Gospel, 41-42.
[14] P. B. Santram, “The Purpose of St. John’s Gospel: The Spread of the Good News,” in India’s Search for Reality and the Relevance of the Gospel of John (eds. Christopher Duraisingh & Cecil Hargreaves; Delhi: ISPCK, 1975), 115.
[15] R. E. Brown, The Gospel According to John, vol. 29 (TAB; New York: Doubleday, 1966), xxix.  
[16] S. Smalley, John: Evangelist & Interpreter (Cumbria: Paternoster, 1998), 31.
[17] R. Schnackenburg, The Gospel According to John, vol. 1 (New York: Crossroad, 1990), 325.
[18] R. Bultmann, The Gospel of John: A Commentary (trans. G. R. Beasley-Murray, R. W. N. Hoare, and J. K. Ricker; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1971), 6-7.
[19] Schnackenburg, The Gospel According to John, 327.
[20] W. Nicol, The Sources in the Fourth Gospel: Tradition and Reaction (London: Brill, 1972), 155.
[21] L. Morris, The Gospel According to John (NICNT; ed. B. Stonehouse; Michigan: Eerdmans, 1995), 154.  
[22] D. A. Brown, “The 7 Miracles of Jesus Recorded in the Gospel of John,” in BCT (2015): 6.  
[23] Brown, “The 7 Miracles of Jesus Recorded in the Gospel of John,” 7.
[24] M. C. Tenney, “The Meaning of the Signs,” in BicSac 132 (April, 1975), 149.  
[25] Brown, “The 7 Miracles of Jesus Recorded in the Gospel of John,” 7.
[26] Tenney, “The Meaning of the Signs,” 150.
[27] J. L. Martyn, History and Theology in the Fourth Gospel (Nashville: Abingdon, 1979), 68-70.
[28] Brown, “The 7 Miracles of Jesus Recorded in the Gospel of John,” 8.
[29] Tenney, “The Meaning of the Signs,” 151-152.
[30] Brown, “The 7 Miracles of Jesus Recorded in the Gospel of John,” 10-11.
[31] P. Riga, “The Use of ‘Sëmeion’ in St. John's Gospel,” in Interpretation (2007): 423.  
[32] A. J. Kostenberger, The Missions of Jesus and The Disciples according to The Fourth Gospel (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1988), 58-59.  
[33] R. J. Painter, The Gospel of John: A Thematic Approach (Oregon: Wipf & Stock, 2011), 83.
[34] Painter, The Gospel of John, 84.
[35] J. Teter, The Gospel of John: The Seven Signs of Jesus,” in EvaCovenant (January, 2012): 12.  
[36] Riga, “The Use of ‘Sëmeion’ in St. John's Gospel,” 411.
[37] D. Guthrie, “The Importance of Signs in the Fourth Gospel,” in Vox Evangelica 5 (1967): 74.  
[38] A. T. Selvaggio, The Seven Signs: Seeing the Glory of Christ in the Gospel of John (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Reformation Heritage, 2010), 6.

Slaves and their place in Early Christian Communities

Introduction: Throughout the history of humankind the slaves are the most pitied person because they have no independent of their own...