The
social status of the early Christian communities has a great impact on the
theology of Paul. We can say in some way that Paul’s theology is the outcome of
the situations and issues of the early Christian communities. This paper will
discuss and look at few of the social status and the situations of the early
Christian community and it will bring out some of the theology of Paul on how
it has impact on his theology.
1.
The Social Status of the early Christian Communities:
The
social status of the early Christianity was so low and desperate. In the second
century the pagans saw Christianity as the religion of the “foolish,
dishonourable and stupid, and only slaves, women and little children.” This is
because the early Christians were poor, uneducated and dispossessed within
Roman society. However some early Christians were also wealthy as indicated by
their possession of the houses which are able to accommodate church meetings,
ownership of slaves and ability to travel. Some Christians were also rich
patrons who accommodated Paul and arranging church meeting in their homes.
(Acts 12:12, 16:15, 17:5-9, 18:7).[1] As
we have known there was some wealthy Christian in the early community, and they
used to provide meeting place for the Christians in their houses. There were
poor people (1 Cor.1:28, 11:22), domestic slaves were also there (1
Cor.7:21-23). So the Christians in the early community have the poor as well as
the well to do people.[2] We
will look at some of the social status of early Christian communities which had
a great impact on the theology of Paul.
1.1. Social Classes:
The
social class during the early century has been divided into upper class and
lower class. The upper classes comprise of the senatorial order, the equestrian
order, decurions. The senators were magistrates who were from the aristocratic
family of the Roman state. The senators were appointed by the emperor as
representatives from all over the Roman Empire. They held the highest position
in government offices and administered the provinces. The equestrians were
originally land owners. They were the rich Romans who did not enter political
or military life. The wealth of equestrians was usually built from agriculture.[3] Decurions were provincial monied aristocrats.
They obtained their wealth through inheritance, landowning, trading and
manufacturing. They served as magistrates on local council which was the
highest local authority. Decurions collected taxes, supervised markets and
served as ambassadors. If the decurions did his job well, the emperor could
promote him to equestrian order.[4] The
lower classes constitute the vast majority of the population. This lower class comprises
of landowners of small farms and business, free poor, freedman, slaves. There
were also small land owners, craftsmen, shopkeepers and soldiers within the
lower classes. However, none of these formed a middle class.[5]
1.2. Social mobility:
The
upper and the lower classes were separated by a number of social barriers
between them. For example, the senatorial class could not marry the slaves. But
there are some mobility which have existed. Slaves could become freedman,
freedman could become equestrians and equestrians could become senators. One
could move up the social scale by marrying someone who is further up the social
class.[6]
Usually mobility was initiated by a person who is in a higher position on the
basis of a “how a person’s personal is capable of with regards to his
achievement.” Social mobility can also move in both directions. People could
also move down the social class by losing their status and positions through
the conviction as criminals. The emperor could remove a person and promote a
person from the senatorial or equestrian orders as well.[7]
1.3. Patrons and clients:
In
the Romans society the wealthy act as a patron to protect the lower class
people as far as he could support in every possible ways. And in return the client
supported his patron in doing odd jobs and working for him, escorts him through
the streets. The patron-client system becomes hereditary and patrons continued
to support clients as a measure of their status. The client used to have
received a little amount of money from his patron for his daily expenses.[8]
1.4. Slaves:
The slaves were at the bottom of the social class and
they were numerous. The slaves were not counted as a person and the master
could deal with him as he chose, could treat as he wished. The price of a slave
was small and because of which a wealthy person can own a great number of
slaves for them to work in his fields, business and so on. Sometimes some slaves
who were faithful to their master were rewarded by his master.[9] Slaves
were treated in the early century AD in different manner depending on the
individual master. Some treat them humanly but some treat them inhumanly. By
the middle of first century AD it was claimed that Seneca who was a Roman stoic
philosopher, allow his slaves to eat dinner with him as equal to discuss
important topics with them. Under the Stoicism influence and later
Christianity, the Romans came to acknowledge the humanness of their slaves.[10]
In the New Testament slaves (δοῦλοι) and slavery (δουλεία) are mentioned
frequently. The best example can be employed here on Onesimus who was the slave
of Philemon. Philemon was considering his slave as his brother as found in
Phil.1:16.[11]
1.5. Women:
In the early century the status of women
was low and did not count much in the society. They were not included in the
census figures. This can also be seen in the New Testament in Matthew 14:21 on
the feeding of the five thousands. It says that those who ate were five
thousand men, besides women and children. This means that women status were low
in the ancient Christianity.[12] It
is also notice that whenever a woman has to go out, she must be always
accompanied by male and female slaves.[13] In
spite of all these low status of women, we also see that women played important
roles in the Christian communities. Romans 16:1 show that Phoebe was given honour.
In 1 Cor. 11, we see women participated in the worship and were even allowed to
use the gift of prophecy.[14] But
in 1 Tim 2:11-15, we see the prohibition of women on not given the authority to
a position over man. This was mainly because of the result of household codes
which expected women to be submitting to the husband.[15]
Overall, we can see that the woman were subjugated and does not have an
authority in every sphere of life.
1.6. Children and Education:
As
school was not there at the time of the early century the family had to arrange
and provide educations for their children. A slave was made responsible to look
after the education of the children in various ways like teaching, instruction,
protection and even correction. His duty was to look after the behaviour of the
child.[16]
When the children reach the age of seven, the boy child will go to education
while the girl child will not. She learns the things necessary to run a house.
The girls were not given education but confined to household works.[17]
2.
Paul’s Theology:
The
writings of Paul have played a significant role in shaping the Christianity.
His “letters laid a foundation for Christian theology.” Dunn says that Paul is
also “claimed to be the greatest theologian of all time.”[18]
Paul’s theology has been influential in the early church. We will look at some
of the Theology of Paul which was impacted by the situation of the churches in
his time.
2.1. Anthropology:
The
way in which Paul saw humankind can be employed in flesh (sarx), body (soma),
spirit (pneuma), heart (kardia), mind (nous), soul (psyche). Flesh can be used
possibly like ‘body’ and ‘soul’ to refer to the whole person.[19] Flesh
denotes human physical body. Likewise soul denotes a living being or living
person. It indicates and expresses the consciousness, intelligence of the self.
In 1 Thess.5:23, Paul brought out soma, psyche and pneuma. Here pneuma is not
referring to the Holy Spirit but to the spirit of human. ‘Mind’ according to
Paul is “designating a capacity for intelligent understanding, planning and
decision.” Paul says that all these form the whole human being. All these
aspects of human existence are summed up in “life” which is a gift of God.[20]
But life “before the coming of Christ is one that lived ‘according to the
flesh’” (Rom.8:12). Human being without Christ remains like one who has not
been able to achieve his or her goal. Human failed to keep God’s law for they
are the slaves of sin. The whole world is under the dominion of flesh. As
Children of Adam “they are born into the world separated from God and as
sinners.” The situation of human kind is to bring a solution to the state of
their sin. Thus, Paul brings ‘Second Adam’ in Jesus to accomplish the
redemptive work. Sin and judgment and death entered to humankind through Adam
and Paul emphasize that “Christ’s work is even greater than Adam’s by bringing
life and triumph over sin.”[21]
2.2. Ecclesiology:
One of the important
contributions of Paul to the Christian faith is the church. The church is the
central theme of Paul’s preaching and the true fellowship among the Christians
came up from the church. The word ‘ekklesia’ is the most used single term by Paul
to designate the community of the believers in Pauline letters. Paul frequently
used metaphors in his discussion on ekklesia. Firstly, he used ‘body’ or ‘body
of Christ’ metaphor for the church. Paul speaks of “the body of Christ” in 1
Cor. 10:16, 12:12, 27, Rom.12:5.[22] For
Paul the body is an important expression of the unity of a community despite of
the difference in its members. This unity shows the caring for one another, so
that all join together in one’s joy and sorrow. (1 Cor. 12:25-26). With this
metaphor Paul describes the relationship of Christians to one another within
the church.[23]
Paul also used the church as a bride which depicted the relationship between
the church and Christ as husband and wife. This metaphor of Christ as
bridegroom and the church as bride “involves an affirmation of the closest
possible unification of Christ with the church as his body.”[24]
Thus the church as the bride of Christ should be holy pure and loyal to the
husband i.e., Christ.
2.3. Christology:
Some
of the things in relation to Christological understanding by Paul are to be
discussed here. Firstly, Paul understands of Jesus as Christ. Paul used
‘Christ’ 270 times in his letters.[25] Paul’s uses of the term ‘Christ’ in statements referring
to Jesus’ redemptive death and resurrection (Rom. 3:21–6; 5:6–8, 15–17; 6:4; 1
Cor. 15:3), which made redemption possible. Paul referred to Jesus as One “who
as to human nature was a descendant of David” (Rom 1:3). The fulfilment of the
prophetic statements about Christ was important to Paul because he found them
assurance for Israel’s salvation. Paul uses ‘Christ’ with respect to the death
and resurrection of Jesus.[26]
Secondly, Paul usage of Jesus as ‘the son of God’ identifies his role as the
representative of God who carries out the will of his father. Jesus is God’s
anointed one in whom the promises of redemption are fulfilled (Rom. 9:4–5).
Paul also says that Jesus is God’s Son and summarizes his message as ‘the
gospel concerning God’s Son’ (Rom. 1:3). Paul references to Jesus’ divine Son
ship emphasizes Jesus’ unique and intimate relationship to God and God’s direct
involvement in Jesus’ redemptive work.[27]
Thirdly, Paul emphasize on Jesus as ‘Lord’. Paul in Romans 10:13 states that
“Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.” This clearly shows
and depicted Jesus as the redeemer and saviour to those who believed in him.
Paul used “Jesus is Lord” as a statement for those who are saved as found in
Romans 10:9. [28]
Jesus Lordship was “central for Paul which was indicated by various passages.”
He sum up his gospel as the preaching of “Jesus Christ as Lord” (2 Cor.4:5) and
used the confession “Jesus is Lord”.[29]
We can also notice that Paul used ‘the image of God’ in
describing Jesus as in 2 Cor.4:4, Rom.8:29. Adam was “created according to the
image of God” (Gen.1:27), but Jesus “is the image of God” (2 Cor.4:4,
Col.1:15). Jesus as God’s image supercedes Adam because ‘image’ suggests that
Jesus shares the nature of God.[30]
2.4. Salvation:
The
Greek word for ‘Soteria’ means
salvation and refers to the salvation of individuals. Salvation is the
“liberation of human beings from their bondage of sin, attaining the
righteousness of God and justify before God.” Paul theology of salvation is
evolves on themes like sin, justification, reconciliation, grace.[31] For
Paul, sin is missing the mark and he understands it as sin against God. Paul
talks about sin in Rom.5:12, 21 where sin is talk in an impersonal term. It is
not that “human inherited sin from Adam, but it is in Adam, all human sin.”[32]
Another aspect is ‘justification’ where Paul says that Christ has justified
human which he mean to say that they are counted as righteous and justified
through the passion and death of Jesus. The righteousness “is the result of a
declaration of God which is the free gift of God to believers” as stated by
Paul in Romans 5:17, 21.[33] Another
aspect or image that Paul uses to describe salvation is reconciliation. When
Paul use and applies reconciliation to Christ event, he refers to God reconciling
human beings, sinners to himself. This instance is clearly shown in Romans
5:10-11 which says that we are reconciled to God through the death of Jesus.
Paul further says that reconciliation has not to do only with human but to the
world (kosmos) as well (2 Cor.5:19).[34]
Finally, Paul usage of Grace is seen in Eph.2:8 which says that by grace we are
saved through faith. Paul says that the sinful person fall sort of the glory of
God (Rom.3:23) and he can achieve the righteousness by grace alone. “The
righteousness is the result of a declaration of God which is the free gift of
God to believers” (Rom.5:17, 21). And this gift is the result from God’s grace
alone.[35]
2.5. Eschatology:
Eschatology deals with
the teaching of the last things like resurrection of the dead, last judgment
end of this world and so on. For Paul his elements of eschatology includes the
Parousia (1 Thess.4:15), the resurrection of the dead (1 Thess.4:16), the
judgment (2 Cor.5:10, Rom.2:6-11, 14:10) and the glory of the believers
(Rom.8:18, 1 Thess.12:12).[36]
For Paul the resurrection of Jesus is one of the eschatological events that
affirms the coming of the new age. In 1 Cor. 15:12, Paul is “confronting an
over realized eschatology within the Corinthian congregation.” They believed
that at their baptism there was no need for their future resurrection and that
they were already living the resurrected life.[37] For
Paul, Parousia is an event which is associated with the end times. Christ will
appear coming down from heaven where “Satan forces will be destroyed, believers
will be reunited with their death and judgment will be completed.” Paul depicts
that parousia is a “saving event which is signalled by the Lord’s cry of
command, archangels call, and the sounding of God’s trumpet” where believers
will rise from death.[38]
3.
Its impact of Social status of Early Christianity on Paul’s Theology:
The
social condition of the early Christian communities was at its low time. Most
of the members of the communities constitute the poor even though some rich and
wealthy people were present. Christianity was regarded as the religion of the
foolish, stupid and also regarded as the religion of the poor, slaves, women
and the oppressed groups.
Firstly,
According to Meeks, the meeting places of most of the early Christian groups
were private houses. Some Christians who were also rich and wealthy
accommodated for arranging church meeting in their homes or houses. These
houses served as churches where the Christian communities met. Thus Meeks
asserts that these were “the basic cell of the Christian movement, and its
nucleus was often an existing household.”[39]
The number of such household assemblies in each city have varied from place to
place and from time to time yet there may have been several in each place.[40] This
household context set the foundation of the household of God (ekklesia). This
has greatly impacted in the shaping of Paul’s theology of ecclesiology.
Secondly,
the condition of the poor, slaves during the early century was pathetic and
they were struggling life. They are in need of freedom and in need to
experience life in its fullness. When Paul talks about slavery as a metaphor
illustrating the disastrous condition, he used to mean liberation and
independence as to describe salvation. The hope of redemption is found in
Rom.8:21 which say, “The creation itself will be set free from its bondage to
decay and obtain the glorious liberty of the children of God.” In Romans 8:21
“for you did not receive the spirit of slavery but you have received the spirit
of son ship.”[41]
We can see that the slave and the oppressed one are to be set liberty from
their bondage and received the spirit of son ship. This view of liberation from
the bondage of slaves had impact on shaping of the Paul’s theology of
salvation.
Thirdly,
Paul presents the “son of God as the master who has voluntarily assumed the
position of a slave.” Jesus Christ is a slave as well as a master, a condemned
prisoner who gives his life for sinners. Jesus was humiliated to the status of
slaves and then rise to be the Lord over all powers. This reminds us of the
social mobility discussed at the beginning of the paper. This suggests “upward
or downward movements that were found not only in the symbolic world of early
Christian faith but also seen in the society.”[42]
Fourthly,
the condition and status of women was so low in the early Christian
communities. They did not have equal status with the men in the society. They
were subjugated in every aspect. In the Pauline teaching, we see in 1
Corinthians 12:13 where Paul gave a charter of equality. Paul stressed on the
equality and unity of believers. Paul states for social equality between male
and female and reminds us the equal position we have in God.[43] The
status of women in the early Christian communities had influence Paul in his
understanding of women and shapes his view and theology.
Conclusion:
This paper discussed at some of the social condition and situations
in the early Christian communities. We have looked at the social
stratification, social mobility and also the status of the slaves, women, and
children in the society. These situations have played an important role in
shaping the theology of Paul. His Theology has evolved to some extent from the
situations of the early Christian communities. His theology has shaped the
doctrines of the church today. The main focus of his theology includes,
Christology which includes his understanding of Jesus as Savoir, Soteriology,
as new being, justification, reconciliation, grace. It also focuses on Anthropology
on the understanding of body, flesh, sin, death and faith; his understanding of
Ecclesiology and Eschatology, on understanding of final events and life after
death. These are some important areas of his theology. His theology helped in
guiding the early church in their situations of difficulty. His theology helps
us today to better understand some doctrines of the church which are based on the
social status of the early Christian communities.
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[1]
D.F. Watson, “Roman Social Classes,” DNTB
(eds. Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter; Illinois: InterVarsity, 2000),
1003. (999-1004)
[2] Ben
Witherington III, Conflict and Community
in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians (Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1995), 22.
[3] Everett
Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early
Christianity (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1987), 42-43.
[9] Eduard
Lohse, The New Testament Environment
(trans. John E. Steely; Nashville: Abingdon, 1976), 212-213.
[14] Derek Tidball, An Introduction to Sociology of the New
Testament (Exeter: Paternoster, 1983), 85.
[15] Margaret Y. MacDonald, The Pauline Churches: A Socio-historical
Study of Institutionalization in the Pauline and Deutero-Pauline Writings
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 105.
[20]
Joseph A. Fitzmyer, Paul and His
Theology: A Brief Sketch (2nd ed.; New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
1989), 83.
[24] Alan
Richardson, An Introduction to the
Theology of the New Testament (London: SCM, 1958), 257-258.
[25] Christopher Tucker, Christology and the New Testament Jesus and
His earliest Followers (Edinburg: Edinburg University Press, 2001), 40.
[36] George
Eldon Ladd, A Theology of the New
Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1993), 596.
[37] L.J.
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255.
[39] Wayne A. Meeks, The First Urban Christians: The Social World
of the Apostle Paul (London: Yale University Press, 1983), 75.
[40]
Meeks, The First Urban Christians, 76.
[41] Gerd
Theissen, Social Reality and the Early
Christians: Theology, Ethics, and the World of the New Testament (trans. Margareth
Kohl; Edinburgh: T & T Clarke, 1993), 164.
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