The book of Revelation is the last book
of the whole Bible. In order to understand the book it is important to know the
background of the book. Therefore this paper will deal with the background of
the book of Revelation. It will also further discuss on the social and the
political context and setting of the book in which the book is being recorded.
1.
Background of the Book of Revelation:
1.1.
Authorship:
The
Book of Revelation has little things to say about the author. He is address to the
one who is located at Patmos Island. The writer calls himself as John but he
does not identify himself specifically.[1] He
names himself as “John” and it can be noticed in 1:9, which reads “I, John,
your brother who share with you in Jesus the persecution, the kingdom, and his
affiliation with them in their trials.”[2] According
to Sweet in his book “Revelation,” he
states that John the apostle is to be the author of the book of Revelation from
middle of second century which was also held by Irenaeus and Melito of Sardis.
It was believed that this was the same John who wrote fourth Gospel and the
Johannine Epistles.[3]
The author of Revelation names himself John four times (1:1, 4, 9, 22:8).
According to Christian tradition, this John is identified as John the apostle.
The earliest witness was Justin and followed by Irenaeus, Clement of
Alexandria, Tertullian, Hippolytus who accepted the identity of the author of
Revelation as John the Apostle. It is the assumption that John the apostle was
the one who write both the fourth gospel and Revelation.[4]
There is also another view that the book
of Revelation was written by John the Elder. This is based on a statement in
Eusebius attributed to Papias of Hierapolis (120 CE). David Aune brings out the
quotes from the statement of Eusebius which reads as:
And if anyone chanced to come who
had actually been a follower of the elders, I would enquire as to the
discourses of the elders, what Andrew or what Peter said, or what Philip, or
what Thomas or James, or what John or Matthew or any other of the Lord’s
disciples [said]; and the things which Aristion and John the elder, disciples of
the Lord, say.[5]
Eusebius
differentiation between John the disciple and John the elder may be because of
the misunderstanding of Papias through whom Eusebius is dependent.[6]
According to Hengel, he suggests that John the Elder might have written
Revelation in 68–70 CE. and that it would then be reworked by his pupils
following his death late in the first century.[7]
However, Smalley disputes the existence of John the Elder and considers it to
be a misreading of the text of Papias by Eusebius.[8] Thus,
John the elder as the author is minimal.
1.2.
Date and Place:
The date of the writing of Revelation
has been assigned to the later years of the reign of Roman emperor Domitian
which is in 81-96 CE. This date agrees with the statements of the earliest
witnesses which include the likes of Irenaeus, Tertullian and Eusebius.[9] Robinson
argues that the date would be between 64 to 70 CE. He supports his argument by
saying that there was no real persecution under Domitian, so John must have
written it shortly after the persecution under Nero in A.D 64-65. He also
supports this connection with the Neronic interpretation of the number 666 and
with the Nero redivivus “Nero
restored to life” legend.[10] According
to Harrington, the external evidence for the date of Revelation is the accounts
of Irenaeus in which he says that Revelation was written during the reign of
Domitian in 81-96 CE. And the internal evidence is shown by the use of
“Babylon” for Rome. In the Jewish Literature Babylon is associated with Rome
“as destroyer of Jerusalem.” Thus, according to him he dates Revelation
approximately between 90-95 CE.[11] With
regards to the place of writing the book of Revelation was supposed to be
written by John from Patmos Island forty miles southwest of Ephesus in the
Aegean Sea. This island was used by the Roman authorities as a place of exile
and John indicates in 1:9 that this was the reason for him to be there.[12]
2.
The Social Context of the Book of Revelation:
2.1.
Christians and Jews:
The
Jews were excused by the Roman government officially from some of the
responsibilities that violated their religious faith, such as serving in the
army and participating in the worship of Roman gods. They were also exempted
from emperor worship. All this was possible because the Jews had done an
agreement with the Roman government that as an obligation they will pray for
the emperor but not to him. This agreement convinced the Romans of their
loyalty to the empire.[13]
Christians on the other hand lived under the cover of Jewish sect for some time.
They were seen by the Romans as a part of Judaism because they were all Jews at
the beginning. So, they have received the same benefits as the Jews received.[14] There
was a time at one point of time when Nero wanted to put the blame of the fire
in AD 64 on the Jews but when it did not succeed he blamed it on the
Christians. John considered the name ‘Jew’ to be worthy name for the true
people of God and did not want it to be used for the Jews in the synagogue who
had rejected Jesus as the Messiah. John even called the Jews of Smyrna and
Philadelphia as ‘synagogue of Satan’ (Rev. 2:9; 3:9).[15] There
was also a Jewish War of A.D. 66-70, in which the Christians avoided to be
identified with the Jews. So after the war the Christians were excluded from
the synagogue. The Christians understood the destruction of the temple as God’s
judgement for the murder of Jesus. They regarded themselves as true Israel.[16] All
this led the Jewish leaders to clarify the identity and the situation with the
Roman authorities. After all this the Christians were no longer considered Jews
by their Jewish neighbours. They were rejected by Jews and they faced a serious
crisis of community and personal identity.[17]
2.2.
The Persecution of Christians:
Persecution
against Christians on the part of the Roman government is referenced in the New
Testament. Christians’ abstinence from emperor worship may have led to the
executions that affected the church at Pergamum in the book of Revelation. Persecution
did exist under Domitian in the late first century. Still, it only occurred
when Christians refused to respect the simple rituals of the Roman religion,
such as sacrificing to the gods. In fact, this persecution was not a new
principle but was grounded in well established laws.[18]
However, there are also views that there was no such persecution taking place.
It may be the hostility of John toward Roman society that led him speaks as if
persecution was occurring. John talks about persecution and also encourages the
church to be faithful. The church at Smyrna is praised for their faithfulness
under pressure. They are warned that Satan will cast some of them into prison
for ten days, where they will suffer tribulation, and then urged, “Be faithful
unto death” (2:10). We also see that Antipas is named as a martyr from the
church at Pergamum (2:13). We see that there is persecution if the people do
not worship the image.[19]
2.3.
Worship of the Emperor:
The
worship of the emperor or the Imperial cult grew gradually out of the
increasing “ascription of superhuman honours to the emperor and out of the
desire to centralize the allegiance of the people in him.”[20]
The imperial cult was widely practiced during the time of Domitian who ruled
from 81-96 CE, particularly during the later part of his rule.[21] The
tradition of only dead emperors was to be deified was ignored by Caligula. Caligula
ordered his statue to be set up in the temple at Jerusalem but the people cannot
regard it because he was considered to be insane.[22]
Domitian at the close of the first century did a reigning emperor attempt to
compel his subjects to worship him. Christians refused to participate in the
worship of emperor which led to persecution.[23] Out
of the seven cities listed in Rev.2-3, all had imperial temples except for
Thyatira. The churches in Revelation were located where the imperial cult was
most securely in place. For the Christians this was one big problem they are
facing. Christians are under serious threat because of this imperial cult or
emperor worship.[24]
3.
The Political Context of the Book of Revelation:
The
political context of the book of Revelation was during the period when the
Roman rules the Empire. Revelation is written at the end of the 1st century CE
during the reign of Domitian. Domitian followed the footstep of Nero who was a
notoriously cruel leader. Domitian was said to have been similarly harsh.[25]
We will look at the Roman emperors who were in rule during the time of the book
of Revelation was written.
3.1.
Julio-Claudian Emperors:
The
first five emperors of the Roman are known as Julio-Claudian emperors. Augustus
was the first Roman ruler, under whom the Roman imperium or the power of the
imperial state was thoroughly established. He ruled wisely and well. During his
reign a regular professional army was created and on retirement the veterans
were given bonus and settled in colonies in the provinces. To consolidate the
empire at large, Augustus took a census of the population and all property as a
basis for recruiting the army and for taxation.[26]
Tiberius succeeded Augustus and during his reign the Roman armies suffered
reverses with the result that he withdrew the frontier to Rhine. His later
years were clouded with troubles and he died in 37 CE. He prohibits the
building of temple and appointment of priests for his own worship. He
discouraged the worship of Caesar.[27]
Caligula was made Tiberius successor by the senate. During his reign he
pardoned political prisoners, reduced taxes, gave public entertainments.
However, he began to show sign of mental weakness. He demanded to be worshipped
as god.[28]
He planned to “place his own image in the Holy of Holies in the temple in
Jerusalem.”[29]
After the death of Caligula, the senate select Claudius as the ruler. He was a
good scholar and that proved to be an abler ruler. Under his rule Rome became a
bureaucracy governed by committees and secretaries. He died in 54 CE leaving to
Nero the succession of the imperial throne. The first five year of Nero reign
was peaceful and successful but the ending part of his reign saw him indulge
his lustful bent. He offended Rome by building his Golden House at the centre
of the city after the great fire broke out in 64 CE. Nero was suspected of
having deliberately set it in order to make room for his new Golden House.[30] It
is true that Nero persecuted Christians not because they did not worship him
but in order to find “scapegoats” for the fire that broke out at Rome.[31] Large
number of Christians were detained, tortured and put to death. It was also
during this time that the authorities learned to distinguish between Jews and
Christians.[32]
3.2.
Flavian Dynasty:
The
ancient Roman imperial dynasty of Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian is
known as Flavian Dynasty. Vaspasian was fragile in his habits and energetic in
his administration. He strengthened the frontiers by reducing dependent
principalities to the status of provinces. He built the famous Colosseum in
Rome and died in 79 CE leaving his office to Titus.[33]
Titus was brave ruler which makes him one of the most popular emperors that
Rome ever had. The catastrophic overthrow of Pompeii and Herculaneum occurred
during his reign. He appointed a commission and did his utmost to rescue as
many of the victims as possible. He even sold his private furniture to contribute
to the general need. He died in 81 CE and the senate conferred the imperial
power to his brother Domitian.[34]
Domitian was a thorough autocrat. He demanded worship for himself which the
Jews and Christians refused to worship. During his reign there was complete
change unlike his father and brother in matters of evil aspects of rule. He
demanded Caesar worship. He launched hatred against the Jews and the
Christians. He wanted himself to be addressed as ‘Lord and God’. All were asked
to call him ‘lord’ or face the consequence of death. In 93 CE he executed some
Christians for refusing to offer sacrifice before his image. His reign is
considered to be the time when the book of Revelation was written. His last
year of reign was a nightmare and he died in 96 CE.[35]
3.3.
Roman Military Might:
The
book of Revelation is comprised of the most sustained critique of Roman power
in the New Testament. The might of the Roman military was at its peak in which
they won war many times. This military victories brought wealth, power and
influence to Rome “which was able through its military might to assert
political and economic dominance.” However, in spite of its military might and
dominance, Rome was not always able to “control its subjects and chaos at bay.”
Even though the beginning of the first century was stable politically, the
middle of the century was filled with turmoil particularly during the reign of
Gaius “Caligula” (37-41 CE) and Nero (54-68 AD).[36]
3.4.
Roman Economic Power:
The
dominion of the Romans is not only over the kings of the earth politically but
its power is extended to the economic aspects as well. The Romans had to meet
and supply the needs of the provinces. In order to support the various projects
such as the constructing buildings, roads, and fleets of sheep for trade and
travel and also for its armies, taxes had to be collected. Rome also have
imported basic necessities for their living and also large amount of luxury
goods. The imported goods included gold, silver, bronze, precious stones, pearls,
fine linen, purple cloth, silk, exotic wood, ivory, marble, spices, wine,
cattle, sheep, horses and slaves (18:11-13). The slaves who are ‘human beings’
are in the list of imports alongside with materials and goods. This shows that the
Romans valued them as nothing and placed them on the same level as gold, silk
and cattle.[37]
Conclusion:
We
have seen from the discussion that the book of Revelation was written in the
context of Roman Empire. There have been different views when it comes to the
date of the book. Some say it could be between 64-70A.D. But the traditional
view is that the book was written during the end of Domitian rule around 95
A.D. There were also uncertainties of the author of the book of Revelation. However,
the most widely accepted view is that of John the Apostle. The Christians in
the beginning were together with Jews and were enjoying the equal benefits. But
when the separation between them was made the Christians no more benefited and
had to face various crises. John had encouraged the Christians to remain
faithful. Imperial cult and persecution were important aspects during that
time. The political context gives us a clear idea of how the Roman Empire was
mighty and powerful in terms of military power and rule. Worship of the Emperor
is also one of the important aspects which the book deals with. John writes
Revelation to let the readers know and understand about the Roman Empire and
its context. He calls people to be faithful till the end in spite of the trails
and difficulties they are facing.
Bibliography:
Achtemeir, Paul J. Joel B. Green
and Marianne Meye Thompson. Introducing
the New
Testament: Its Literature and Theology. Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Eerdmans, 2001.
Aune, David. Revelation. Word Biblical Commentary 52. Texas: Word Books, 1998.
Barclay, William. The Revelation of John vol. 1.
Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976.
Barik, Bindulata. Persecution and Hope: Exploring Suffering in
the Book of Revelation.
Bangalore:
SAIACS, 2015.
Bell, Albert A. A Guide to the New Testament World.
Scottdale: Herald, 1994.
Boring, M. Eugene. Revelation: Interpretation A Bible
Commentary for Teaching and
Preaching. Edited by Paul J. Achtemeier. Louisville: John Knox,
1989.
Boxall, Ian. The Revelation of
John. Black’s New Testament Commentaries. Edited by Mona
D. Hooker. London: A&A Black, 2006.
Carson, D. A. and Douglas J. Moo. An
Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Zondervan, 2005.
Cohen, Shaye J. D. From the Maccabees to the Mishnah.
Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987.
Croix, G. E. M. De Ste. Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and
Orthodoxy. Oxford: Oxford
University Press,
2006.
Daalen, David H. Van. A Guide to Revelation. New Delhi: ISPCK,
1988.
Guy,
Laurie. Making Sense of the Book of
Revelation. Regent’s Study Guides 15.
Auckland:
Smyth & Helwys, 2009.
Harrington, Wilfred J. Revelation. Sacra Pagina Series 16.
Edited by Daniel J. Harrington;
Minnesota:
Liturgical, 2008.
Hengel, M. The Johannine Question. Translated by J. Bowden. London: SCM, 1989.
Reddish, Mitchell G. "Martyr
Christology in the Apocalypse." Journal
for the Study of the
New Testament 33 (1988): 85-95.
Robinson, John A. T. Redating the New Testament.
Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976.
Sweet, J. P. M. Revelation. Philadelphia: Westminster,
1979.
Smalley, S. S. Thunder and Love: John’s Revelation and
John’s Community. Milton Keynes:
Word, 1994.
Tenney, Merrill C. New Testament
Survey. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2003.
Thomas, M. M. The Revelation to
John. Contextual Theological Bible Commentary II.
Tiruvalla: Christava Sahitya Samithy, 2014.
Watkins,
Durrell. “Revelation in Context.” The Samaritan
Institute (2011): 1-32.
[1] Laurie Guy, Making
Sense of the Book of Revelation (RSG 15; Auckland: Smyth &
Helwys, 2009), 16-17.
[2] Paul J. Achtemeir, Joel B. Green
and Marianne Meye Thompson, Introducing
the New Testament: Its Literature and Theology (Grand Rapids, Michigan:
Eerdmans, 2001), 572.
[4] Wilfred J. Harrington, Revelation (SPS 16; ed. Daniel J.
Harrington; Minnesota: Liturgical, 2008), 8.
[7] M. Hengel,The Johannine Question (trans. J. Bowden; London: SCM, 1989), 127.
[8] S. S. Smalley, Thunder and Love: John’s Revelation and
John’s Community (Milton Keynes: Word, 1994), 38.
[10] John A. T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1976), 5.
[12] D. A. Carson and Douglas
J. Moo, An Introduction to the New
Testament (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2005), 707.
[13] M. Eugene Boring, Revelation: Interpretation A Bible
Commentary for Teaching and Preaching (ed. Paul J. Achtemeier; Louisville:
John Knox, 1989), 12.
[14] Shaye J. D. Cohen, From the Maccabees to the Mishnah
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1987), 228.
[15] Boring, Revelation: Interpretation A Bible Commentary for Teaching and
Preaching, 13.
[16] Bindulata Barik, Persecution and Hope: Exploring Suffering in
the Book of Revelation (Bangalore: SAIACS, 2015), 10.
[17] Boring, Revelation: Interpretation A Bible Commentary for Teaching and
Preaching, 13.
[18] G. E. M. De Ste. Croix, Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and
Orthodoxy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 111-112.
[21] M. M.
Thomas, The Revelation to John (CTBC
II; Tiruvalla: Christava Sahitya Samithy, 2014), 13.
[22] Achtemeir, Green and Thompson, Introducing the New Testament: Its
Literature and Theology, 568.
[32] David H. van Daalen, A Guide to Revelation (New Delhi: ISPCK,
1988), 3.
[36] Achtemeir, Green and Thompson, Introducing the New Testament: Its
Literature and Theology, 566.
[37] Achtemeir, Green and Thompson, Introducing the New Testament: Its
Literature and Theology, 566.
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