After
the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, various scholars began to look at the
relationship of the Dead Sea Scrolls with the various texts of the Bible. And
they found out different similarities between the Dead Sea Scrolls and the
Bible. Among them is the Pauline Literature which has a varied of parallel with
the scrolls. This paper will be focusing on comparing some of the important
common aspects between the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Pauline Literature.
1.
Throne-Chariot (Merkabah):
The
book of Ezekiel was important to the Qumran Community and its “scrolls provide
some of the earliest evidence that the throne in Ezekiel’s vision was actually
called Merkabah.” In 4Q385 there is the “vision that Ezekiel saw” with the four
living creatures (4:5-6). A pre liturgical text from Qumran Cave 4, known as the songs of the Sabbath sacrifice or Angelic Liturgy is comprised of 13
separate sections. The twelfth Sabbath songs start with a description of the
appearance of the divine throne chariot. The appearance of Merkabah is greeted
with praise and blessing from the ranks of angels. 4Q405 20-22 ii 8-9 has,
“They bless the image of the throne-chariot [which is] above the vault of the
cherubim, and they sing [the splen] dor of the shinning vault (which is) beneath
the seat of his glory.” A number of manuscripts of the Angelic Liturgy found at
Qumran (4Q 400-407) makes it possible that “these songs was a major vehicle for
the experience of communion with the angels as it is alluded in the
Thanksgiving Hymns (1QH 3:21-23, 11:13) and Rule of the Community (1QS
11:7-8).”[1]
This
is presented to us with a metaphor in 2 Cor. 2:14. By using the metaphor of
triumphal procession, Paul is able to conjure up the image of God on his throne
glory with Christ seated at the right hand. These texts provide evidence of a
tradition of the Roman triumphal procession in which the emperor sits enthroned
with the co-occupant on a chariot. Genesis Rabbah 8:9 might interpret the image
of God in Gen. 1:27 in the light of Merkabah vision in Ezek. 1:26, in which
Ezekiel sees an anthromorphic image on the divine throne. This image is
identified as “the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the Lord” (v.28,
cf. 2 Cor. 3:18, 4:6).[2] The
first half of 2 Cor. 2:14 should be interpreted in the light of Paul’s Merkabah
mysticism. Here Paul renders thanks to God for leading him in triumphal
procession before the divine throne-chariot. Paul makes a connection between
his own Merkabah encounter and revelation in 2 Cor. 2:14. Paul not only states
that God leads him in triumphal procession but also through him God “reveals
the fragrance of the knowledge of him.” Thus, Paul presents himself as a
mediator of divine revelation with Moses whose “Merkabah encounter with God on
Sinai and to the revelation which he mediated to humanity.”[3]
2.
Women’s Authority in 1 Corinthians and Qumran:
There
has been many attempts to translate the text in 4Q270 71, 13-15. Baumgarten
first publish the translation of the passage which reads as follows:[4]
One
who murmers against the Fathers shall be [sent forth] from the congregation and
shall not return. If (he murmers) against the Mothers he is to be penalized for
ten days, for the Mothers do not have authority (?) within the [congregation].
There
are different scholars like F. Garcia Martinez, J. Maier, E. M. Cook, G.
Vermes, C. Hampel, who translate the word rwqmh in various ways.
Baumgarten first translate it as authority, Martinez translate it as mingling, Maier
has his translation as authoritative status, Cook has put as esteem, Vermes has
translated it as distinction. J. Elwoldes support to Baumgarten rendering of
the text. He has argued in an extended meaning of rwqmh, as authority,
leadership, status' was known at least to the Greek translators of the Psalms
and Ezekiel and at Qumran. He has concluded that in the community referred to
in 4Q270 women members in some sense “didn't count.” A murmurer against the
mothers is fined for ten days, for mothers have no “essential being”, “authority”
or “status” in the midst of the community, that is to say they “count for
nothing.”[5]
This
authority mention in 4Q270 71, 13-15 has been talk about in the Pauline
Literature as well in the book of 1 Corinthians 11:10. Here in this verse, the
veil in which the woman put for head covering is a sign of subordination to
man. The mother in the Damascus congregation has no significant empowered
place. Likewise, for Paul, the Corinthian Christian woman should be unable to
take her place in the worshipping community.[6] For 4Q270 71, 13-15 it is reasonable to
suppose that the limitation of the status of the mothers in the congregation
comes about because they are not permitted to wear a mark of authority in the
congregation. In 1 Corinthians 11:10 it is reasonable to suppose that the
authority a woman must wear on her head, whether a veil or braided hair bound
up, enables her to participate in the praying community in her proper place so
that the worshipping angels are not compromised by any kind of unnaturalness.[7]
3.
Eschatological Revelation of God’s Righteousness:
In
Romans 1:17 and 3:21, the eschatological revelation of God’s righteousness is
mentioned. These two verses occurred in two of the important passages. In the
letter to the Romans and the background for understanding is provided by the
parallel passage in Qumran literature in 1QHa 6.33–34: “All injustice (34) [and
wick]edness you will destroy forever, while your righteousness (= the
eschatological salvation) shall be revealed before the eyes of all your creatures.”
The meaning of the phrase “righteousness of God” in Qumran literature goes
along with eschatological salvation and the same phrase with this idea is found
in other Qumran texts such as Book of Mysteries (1Q27 frag. 1 1.6–7;
partly also in the same composition in 4QMystb [4Q300] frag. 3 line 6) or in
the Damascus Document (CD 20.20).[8]
Like Paul, the Qumran text uses a biblical phrase which talks of salvation (Isa
56:1) in relation to righteousness. Thus from “the background of Hebrew Bible
and early Judaism, Paul states that the final salvation expected for the future
has already appeared (cf. the ‘now’ in Rom. 3:21). But this eschatological
salvation through Christ does not yet happen openly before the whole world; it
is a salvation now found only in the gospel and for those who believe.” This
evidence visibly shows that these Qumran parallels are useful for a better
understanding of Pauline theology.[9]
4.
New Creation, Salvation and Hope:
The
text in 2 Cor. 5:17 speak of the Christian individual as creature as in Rom.
8:39 or “creation” as in Rom 1:20, while Gal 6:14–15 refers to a “new creation”
in a cosmological sense. In both cases, a future eschatological event is taken
into the present. Concerning the Qumran texts we find in 1QS 4.25 “until…a new
creation” the “normal” idea of a future new creation.[10]
However, the same understanding of Pauline thought is found in 1QHa 11.21–22:
“there is hope for him whom you have created away from the dust for the eternal
council” and 1QHa 19.16–17: “to be renewed together with all that [(…)]
exists.” Both the texts in 1QHa belong to “soteriological confessions” in two
“community songs,” the second text seems to depend on the first one, and both
texts speak of a present experience. Thus, in Qumran literature, there is the
evidence of both present and future eschatology. The concept of “hope” for a
future eschatological salvation is found in both Rom. 8:24 and the
‘soteriological confession’ of 1QHa 11.21–22.[11]
5.
New Covenant:
Both
Qumran Scrolls and Pauline letters draw the concept of “new covenant” on the
same passage from Jer. 33:31. The “new covenant” signifies a renewing of the
old covenant in the sectarian scrolls. On the other hand, Paul’s “new covenant”
is a new stage in the unfolding of the divine will and is associated with the
death and resurrection of Jesus.[12] The
tradition of the Lord’s Supper in 1 Cor. 11:25 states that through the covenant
sacrifice of Christ’s death, God made a “new covenant”. Paul himself employs
the term only once in 2 Cor. 3:6; it is rather un-Jewish to put the “new
covenant” in sharp opposition to the “old” one (3:14) at Sinai. This difference
(a real new covenant or only a renewed covenant) makes the parallel interesting
and aids a better understanding of Paul and Qumran. Several times the Damascus Document speaks of a “new
covenant” that God made in “the land of Damascus”; it seems that this group of
the “new covenant” existed already before the Qumran community was founded. The
same group is apparently meant in 1QpHab 2.3.[13]
6.
Dualism:
The dualism of servant of impurity/ servants of
righteousness in Rom. 6:16-19 has parallel in Qumran text in 1QS 4.9–10 which
offers terms such as “in the service of righteousness” (line 9) and “in the
service of uncleanness” (line 10).[14] The
dualism of ‘children of light or day’ and ‘children of darkness or night’ is
found in 1 Thess. 5:4-9. Such a “dualistic division of humanity” children of
light and children of dark is found often in Qumran sectarian writings like 1QS
1:9-11. Even though the parallel term is missing from the Qumran literature,
the similar division can be seen in the division of ‘sons of light’ and ‘sons
of darkness’ in 1QM 1:1; 1QS1:9-10.[15]
Another significant
dualism expressed by employing anthropological term by Paul is the dualism of
flesh and spirit. Paul identifies flesh with the notion of sin, which is also
unparalleled in the Hebrew Bible and unknown to the Rabbis. In similar to
Pauline writings, man appears as flesh, frail and weak, constantly subject to
temptation or engaged in ceaseless warfare with the powers of darkness.[16]
The negative usage of flesh in Pauline writings especially in Rom 8:3 has
direct parallel to 1QS 11.9. Both the Qumran writings and the Pauline
literature have the similar understanding of flesh in a negative way that
includes the flesh of all humankinds including the pious.[17] The
dualism of hate and love in Rom. 12: 17-21 has its parallel to 1QS 10.17–21.
However, in any case, the Pauline ending of a series of ethical topics seems to
be typical for the contrast to Qumran.[18]
7.
Concept of Spirit in Pauline and Qumran:
Paul
concept and view of the spirit as life-giving spirit and the idea that the
spirit purifies and sanctifies the Gentiles in Rom. 1:3-4 can be linked to the
background of Ezekiel 36–37. This is paralleled in Qumran (cf. 1QS III 6–8; IV
20–23) but in Qumran scrolls there is no usage of or without any reference to
the Gentiles, which is, then, a central part of the Pauline reception of the
idea.[19] In Pauline understanding, the gift of the
spirit sanctifies the community as well as individuals and makes both the
community and any individual believer as a temple (1Cor. 3:16). The concept of
community as temple has its parallels to the Qumran view of the community as a
temple (1QS V 5–6; VIII 5–6; IX 3–6). In Qumran, the notion of the community as
a temple does not signify a substitution of the Temple. Instead, it indicates
the Qumran community with its high standards of purity does represent the
sanctity of the temple. The similar idea is true for Paul and can be seen in
Pauline writings.[20] Although
in Paul the distinction between the natural human spirit and the Holy Spirit
given to believers is much stricter than the idea in the Hodayot, there are
some rather hidden hints which are very much attested with Qumran. For example,
in Pauline writings, the Holy Spirit was also considered as a virtue or linked
with virtues (2 Cor. 6:6-7). The Qumran parallels share the view that the gift
of the spirit or the possession of the spirit is not simply an experience of
blessings or entrance to ecstasy. Instead, it is the wisdom to know the path of
God.[21]
8.
Understanding of Community in Pauline and Qumran:
2
Cor. 6:14-7:1 provides the perfect statement in the Pauline letters of the
concept of the Christians as ‘the temple’ and it is the one most significant in
its terminology of the theology of the Qumran community.[22]
The understanding of the community as the Temple of God in 1Cor. 3:16-17 is
found in Qumran literature in 1QS 8.5–6, 8–9. There is lack of parallel
regarding the understanding of the group as temple apart from Qumran and the
Christian literature in the Hellenistic-Roman period or earlier. Both Paul and
Qumran texts combine with this the understanding of the community as “field” or
in relation to “plantation” in 1 Cor. 3:5-9 has direct parallel to 1QS 8.5–6
and in 1QS11.8. In 1 Cor. 3:10–12 Paul uses the term “foundation” three times
which is found also in 1QS 8.8. In this context, it gives the impression of a
tradition that has been taken over before Paul wrote his letters.[23] Paul’s
illustration of the concept of the community in 1Tim. 3:15 as “the pillar and
foundation of the truth,” has its parallels in the temple symbolism texts in
Qumran (1QS ix. 3ff; 1QS viii. 7ff; and 1QH. vi. 25ff).[24] In
Pauline writings, the community is described as “new covenant” in 1 Cor. 11: 25
and 2 Cor. 3: 6. The parallel expression is found in the Qumran literature in
CD 6.19 (partly 4QDd [4Q269] frag. 4 2.1): “those who entered the new covenant
in the land of Damascus.” It is also found with the same wording in CD 8.21;
19.33–34; and 20.12. All these passages in Damascus Document are found in the
so called “Admonition” [CD 1–8; 19–20 + 4QD MSS]). The expression is found also
in 1QpHab 2.3: “the trai[tors of] the new [covenant].”[25]
9.
Concept of Circumcision in Qumran and Pauline:
According to the story of Josephus Adiabene in
Antiquities 20, a Gentile can become Jew without circumcision. There was lots
of views and discussion to this on whether a Gentile could become Jews without
circumcision or not. For some, there was a view that Gentile needs to be
circumcised in order to worship God. But it is also known that Gentiles who
worship God are not Jews.[26] However there are four Qumran texts which
points to the conclusion that Gentiles cannot become Jews:[27]
i.
In 4Q Florilegium (4Q174) the future
temple will remain pure because it will not be entered by ‘gerim’ and ‘b’nei
nekhar’. Gerim denotes foreigners who
are more like Israelites while b’nei
nekhar means foreigners. It is assumed that foreigners will remain
foreigners even if they joined them.
ii.
In CD XIV 3-6, members should be
registered, seated at assemblies, & to speak, according to a fixed order
reflecting their respective castes- of which the first three are defined by
their descent (Priests, Levites, and Israelites) & the fourth is “the ger”.
Gerim are there in the assembly, sect but their differential descent means they
are not Israelites.
iii.
The Temple Scrolls 39-40, distinguishes
between Israelites and gerim with regard to entering the temple. The Israelites
entered in different way and the gerim who were foreigners were given the third
courtyards.[28]
iv.
In the book of Jubilee in 15:26, there
is insists that Jews must be circumcised but at the same time any Gentile
circumcised later than the eighth day could become a Jew.[29]
According
to the belief of the Qumran, birth defines a person immutably, so Gentiles
remains Gentiles no matter what they do or undertake to do. As for
circumcision, Paul’s attitude seems to be that it is basically irrelevant to
what should interest religious people; as he puts it in 1 Cor. 7:18, people who
are circumcised when they join the Church should remain circumcised, while
people who were not circumcised should not be circumcised. For Paul the whole
issue is irrelevant to the real concerns of religious people, if they have
faith (Rom 4:9–12), “For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor
uncircumcision is of any avail, but faith working through love” (Gal 5:6), “For
neither circumcision counts for anything, nor uncircumcision, but a new
creation” (Gal 6:15).[30]
10.
Family Relationships in Qumran and Pauline:
The
publication of 4QInstruction shed new light on the family code of Eph
5:21–6:9. 4QInstruction is a Wisdom text which was likely to be written
in the second century BC. The relationship between husbands and wives in Eph
5:21–33, and then the teaching about parent-child relationships in 6:1–4 are
brought out.[31]
4Q416 2III 15-16 talks about the fifth commandment of the Decalogue which says,
“Honour your father in your poverty
and your mother in your lowliness”. In Ephesians 6:1-4,
we find the parallel instructions to honour parents. Both the text mentions the
duty of the children to obey and honour their parents.[32] 4QInstruction
talks about the relationship between husband and wife which can be found in
4Q416 2 III 20–IV 13. To sum up what is written in the text, it is all about
how a man leaves his father and cleaves to his wife. In coming together they
are no more two but they have become one flesh. This spouse relationship can be
seen in Eph.5:21-33. The
text can be divided in two parts i.e. verses 22 to 24 concerns the woman, while
verses 25 to 32 concern the man. Concerning the wife, it says that she should
submit to her husband, and concerning the husband it says that he should love
his wife.[33]
4QInstruction
and
Eph 5:21–6:4 both present a series of instructions concerning family
relationships: parent-child and husband-wife. The exhortation to honour one’s
parents, we have noted that where Eph 6:1–4 differs from Col 3:20–21, it has
similarities with 4Q416 2 III 15–19. We have also noted that in 4Q416 2 III
15–16, the relationship between God and man serves as the model for the
parent-child relationship. A similar comparison is to be found in Eph 5:21–33,
where the relationship between Christ and the Church serves as the model for
the husband-wife relationship.
The two texts insist greatly on man’s superiority: man dominates his wife in 4QInstruction
and the woman submits to her husband in Eph 5:22.[34]
11. Concept of Law:
The
expression “works of the Law” occurs in both the Qumran literature and Pauline
literature. Until the publication of 4QMMT in 1994, there was not any exact
Hebrew or Aramaic equivalent of the expression used by Paul.[35] This expression “apparently occurs nowhere
else in ancient writings other than once in MMT (the laws in dispute concern
matters of sacrifice, priestly gifts, purity, forbidden marriages, and persons
prohibited from entering the sanctuary [C 26-27]) and eight times in Paul’s
letters (erga nomou: Rom. 3:20; Gal. 2:16 [3 times]; 3:2, 5, 10).”[36] The
expression ‘hanging on a tree’ in Gal. 3:13 has parallels in 11QTemplea (11Q19)
64.6–13; partly also in 4Q524 frag. 14; and in 4QpNah (4Q169) fragments 3–4
1.6–8. This provides an idea that while explaining the understanding of the Law
and crucifixion in Gal. 3: 13, Paul uses an early Jewish understanding of Deut
21:22–23 to provide an interpretation of the crucifixion of Christ.[37] For Paul, by becoming cursed “for us”
according to the Law in Deut 21:23: ‘Cursed is everybody who hangs on a tree,’
Christ redeemed his believers “from the curse of the Law” to receive “the
blessing of Abraham” by faith (Gal 3:13–14). Both the Qumran scrolls and
Pauline consider the expression ‘hanging on a tree’ is a curse and interpret it
as an instrument of execution of the cursed person.[38]
Conclusion:
With
the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls, scholars begin to see the better
understanding of Paul’s Jewish identity. It also gives new light in affirming
the Jewish-Palestinian sources of Pauline literature. The Qumran scrolls are
very much significant to provide a better understanding of some of the Pauline
concepts which have parallels to the Qumran. The scrolls are very much helpful
in providing insight for understanding the development of Pauline thought from
the Jewish world. The scrolls enable us to see how Paul transforms some of the
Jewish concepts to bring into its full development as well as to relate it to
the context of Christianity. There are as many as different themes and topics
of the Qumran scrolls which are parallels with the Pauline literature. We have
seen the comparison and the similarities between the two texts of the scrolls
and Pauline. Thus, the studying of the Scrolls is very much essential to have a
better knowledge and understanding of Pauline literature.
Bibliography:
Baumgarten, J. M. “The Cave 4 Versions of the Qumran Penal Code.” Journal of Jewish
Studies 43 (1992): 270.
Brooke, George J. The Dead Sea
Scrolls and the New Testament. Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 2005.
Frey, Jorg. “Critical Issues in the
Investigation of the Scrolls and the New Testament.” In The
Oxford Handbook
of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by Timothy H. Lim and John J. Collins.
Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. 534.
Frey, Jorg. “Paul’s View of the Spirit
in the Light of Qumran.” In The Dead Sea Scrolls and
Pauline
Literature. Edited
by Jean-Sébastien Rey. Leiden: Brill, 2014. 237-260.
Gartner, Bertil. The Temple and the
Community in Qumran and the New Testament: A
Comparative
Study in the Temple Symbolism of the Qumran Texts and the New Testament. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1965.
Kuhn, Heinz-Wolfgang. “The Impact of
Selected Qumran Texts on the Understanding of
Pauline
Theology.” In The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls. Edited by James H.
Charlesworth. Texas: Baylor University Press, 2006. 153-185.
Lim, Timothy H. The Dead Sea
Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2005.
Martinez, Florentino Garcia. The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran
Text in English.
Translated by
Wilfred G.E. Watson. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1996.
Martinez, Florentino Garcia. “Galatians
3:10-14 in the Light of Qumran.” In The Dead Sea
Scrolls and
Pauline Literature.
Edited by Jean-Sébastien Rey. Leiden: Brill, 2014. 51-67.
Rey, Jean Sebastian. “Family Relationships in 4Q Instruction and
Eph.5:21-6:4.” In Echoes
From the Caves:
Qumran and the New Testament. Edited by
Florentino Garcia Martinez. Leiden: Brill, 2009. 231-255.
Scott, James M. “Throne Mysticism in
Qumran and in Paul.” In Eschatology, Messianism
and the Dead Sea
Scrolls. Edited by Craig A. Evans and Peter W. Flint. Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1997. 101-119.
Schwartz, Daniel R. “End Meets: Qumran and Paul on Circumcision.” In The Dead Sea
Scrolls and
Pauline Literature.
Edited by Jean-Sébastien Rey. Leiden: Brill, 2014. 295-307.
Vanderkam, James and Peter Flint. The
Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Their Significance
for
Understanding the Bible, Judaism, Jesus, and Christianity. New York:
Harper San Francisco, 2002.
[1] James M. Scott,
“Throne Mysticism in Qumran and in Paul,” in Eschatology, Messianism and the Dead Sea Scrolls (eds. Craig A. Evans and Peter W. Flint; Grand Rapids,
Michigan: Eerdmans, 1997), 104.
[5] George J. Brooke, The
Dead Sea Scrolls and the New Testament (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2005),
203-204.
[8] Heinz-Wolfgang
Kuhn, “The Impact of Selected Qumran Texts on the Understanding of Pauline
Theology,” in The Bible and the Dead Sea Scrolls (ed. James H.
Charlesworth; Texas: Baylor University Press, 2006), 154, 157.
[12] Timothy H. Lim, The
Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2005), 115.
[15] Jorg Frey,
“Critical Issues in the Investigation of the Scrolls and the New Testament,” in
The Oxford Handbook of the Dead Sea Scrolls (eds. Timothy H. Lim and
John J. Collins; Oxford: Oxford University press, 2010), 534.
[19] Jorg Frey,
“Paul’s View of the Spirit in the Light of Qumran,” in The Dead Sea Scrolls
and Pauline Literature (ed. Jean-Sébastien Rey; Leiden: Brill, 2014),
258.
[22] Bertil Gartner,
The Temple and the Community in Qumran and the New Testament: A Comparative
Study in the Temple Symbolism of the Qumran Texts and the New Testament (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1965), 49.
[26] Daniel R. Schwartz, “End Meets: Qumran and Paul on
Circumcision,” in The
Dead Sea Scrolls and Pauline Literature (ed. Jean-Sébastien Rey; Leiden: Brill,
2014), 296.
[28] Florentino
Garcia Martinez, The Dead Sea Scrolls
Translated: The Qumran Text in English (trans. Wilfred G.E. Watson; Grand
Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1996), 165.
[31] Jean Sebastian Rey, “Family Relationships in 4Q
Instruction and Eph.5:21-6:4,” in Echoes
From the Caves: Qumran and the New Testament (ed. Florentino Garcia
Martinez; Leiden: Brill, 2009), 232.
[35] Florentino
Garcia Martinez, “Galatians 3:10-14 in the Light of Qumran,” in The Dead Sea
Scrolls and Pauline Literature (ed. Jean-Sébastien Rey; Leiden: Brill,
2014), 58.
[36] James Vanderkam
and Peter Flint, The Meaning of the Dead Sea Scrolls: Their Significance for
Understanding the Bible, Judaism, Jesus, and Christianity (New York: Harper
San Francisco, 2002), 350.
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