Introduction:
The conquest of Alexander the Great
led to the formation of a new political, economic and religious order of large
dimensions which was further expanded to the west by Rome.[1]
The political, economic and religious history of the Hellenistic-oriental
period as well as the Greco-Roman period helps us to better understand the
picture of the ancient times. This survey will helps us to know the clear
background of the events that had occurred and took place in the past. So, this
paper deals on the brief survey of the political, economic and religious
history of the Hellenistic-Oriental and Greco-Roman Imperial Period.
1. History of the
Hellenistic-Oriental Period:
The
period brought about by the conquest of the Ancient Near East by Alexander the
Great from the period between 333-323 BCE is referred to as the
Hellenistic-Oriental Period.[2] We
will look at the political, economic and religious history of the
Hellenistic-Oriental period in the following.
1.1. Political History:
1.1.1. The conquests of Alexander:
When his father died in 337 BCE, Alexander took over the throne. His first
victory was when he defeated Persian king Darius III in 333 BCE at Issus near
the gateway leading to Asia Minor. His victory over Darius III opened access to
the central countries of the Persian realm. Soon Egypt submitted to Alexander
without any battle and he founded new city, Alexandria in Egypt.[3]
Alexander encouraged and organized intermarriage between his soldiers and the oriental
women of his conquered lands. The cities promoted and founded by Alexander and
his successors always took the form of Hellenistic in structure with the works
of Greeks.[4]
Through further campaigns he was soon in command of all Asia Minor and reached
India and he extended his domain to the Indus River. Upon his return to Babylon
Alexander began to prepare for the invasion of Arabia but he was not
successful. The luxury of Babylon weakened his constitution and he contracted
fever and died in 324 BCE. After his death his kingdom was divided among his
generals. These generals were called Diodochi in Greek for successors.[5]
1.1.2.
The Seleucids: The Seleucids empire centered in Syria
where Antioch as its capital. The Seleucid dominion in Asia Minor gradually
diminished as the local people asserted their independence after Alexander’s
death and founded kingdom of their own. However, Seleucid rule was maintained
in Syria and their influence was potent in the political affairs of Palestine.
Antiochus III defeat Egypt in 201-200 BCE and in two years Antiochus III gained
control of all Palestine.[6]
Antiochus IV Epiphanes was another ruler who launches an invasion on Egypt.
Despite of his initial success, his attempt to annex Egypt failed. Rumors
spread about his killing at the battle which led to Epiphanes anger and through
his instruction Jerusalem was destroyed, men were killed, women and children
were enslaved.[7]
The effect of the Seleucid dominion was tremendous. Antioch, the capital of
their country became one of the largest cities of the Roman Empire and was the
meeting place of the East and West. Greek language and literature were widely
spread throughout the near east and afforded a common medium of culture for
oriental and western people.[8]
1.1.3.
Ptolemics: The Ptolemies were capable and
enlightened rulers with absolute and unlimited power over Egypt and its
subjects. During the Ptolemies rule, Egypt became one of the most important
intellectual centres of the Hellenistic world. The Ptolemies were concerned
with securing the largest possible revenue from the Egyptians, whom they
therefore refrained from oppression Alexandrian Egypt became famous as the home
of scholars and great center of learning.[9] Under
Ptolemy Philadelphus, the Jewish scriptures were translated into Greek. The
Egyptian power reached its apex under Philadelphus successor Ptolemy III
Eugretes. He was skilled diplomat, successful in war against Seleucids, and
also protected Egyptian trade with a strong navy.[10] Under
the Ptolemies the Jews in Palestine enjoyed many of the privileges of a free
community. Thousands of Jewish slaves were liberated at royal expenses. Some of
these were given posts of responsibility in the empire to led them able to
settle well.[11]
1.2. Economic History:
1.2.1.
Agriculture: All countries of the Hellenistic
empires included areas of rich agricultural production. Only Greece was unable
to produce enough to provide for its own population. Therefore, they always
needed to import grain from other. The source of grain imports (Cyprus,
Phoenicia, Cyrenaica) were in the hands of the Ptolemies during the early
Hellenistic period and thus the Ptolemies controlled the Greek market. The
Ptolemies increased grain production, making Egypt one of the primary grain
exporters. Egypt was independent in its entire food production because of its
fertile land which comes from the river Nile as the source of its fertility.[12]
The land used for agriculture increased considerably during the Hellenistic
period. Several kinds of produce were brought in by the Ptolemies like fruits
of various kinds, vegetables etc. The Ptolemies expanded the regions and
introduce vineyard and varieties of grapes from Greece and Asia Minor. The
Ptolemies encouraged oil production in order to meet the demand of vegetable
oil. Difficulties arose as many important agricultural areas were lost in the
gradual dissolution of the Seleucid Empire. Seleucid kings did not attempt to
plan their economy as Ptolemies did. Nothing is known from them about the
improvement of agricultural methods and the introduction of better mechinary.[13]
1.2.2.
Manufacturing & Industry: Metalwork methods had
become highly developed during the Hellenistic period. The production of
weapons was the most important branch of the iron industry because of great demand
for war equipment. Weapons were continuously manufactured in mass production.
Egypt’s production of gold, silver, and bronze vessels continued to flourish
throughout this period, supplying both domestic and external demand. Textiles
were also manufactured in individual households. The countries of the east were
the leading producers of textiles. Flax was grown in Egypt but rare in other
countries.[14]
Egypt possessed an industrial monopoly in papyrus which is produced in large
quantity. The Seleucid Empire was self efficient in the production of this
widely used writing material. Papyrus was produced from the papyrus plant. All
sorts of materials were used for writing in ancient times like wood, stone,
tablets of wax or clay, pieces of pottery and various metals. But only leather
and papyrus were widely used in the Hellenistic period. Commercial production
of books was set up where a number of scribes were employed and paid according
to the number of lines they wrote.[15]
1.2.3.
Trade & Banking: Trade among different Hellenistic
kingdoms had the character of domestic trade, for which partially independent
cities such as Athens, Miletus, Delos and Rhodes served as the primary
commercial centres. In the trade luxury articles such as precious stones and
pearls, expensive textiles, ointment, rare wood were traded. Trading of
foodstuffs and mass consumption goods was very important between one kingdom to
the other. The most significant trade routes were those of the sea like the
Mediterranean, Black Sea, and river.[16] A
variety of gold and silver currencies was used with no uniform standard of
coinage before the conquest of Alexander. Alexander made silver the currency of
his whole empire and introduced the Attic standard for all mints. The
Hellenistic period also saw new banks owned by those cities which had the right
to strike coins as well as private banking institutions. In addition to money
changing, the bank kept the accounts of their customers and their deposits,
made transfers and gave loans. Athens was always the leading banking centre of
the ancient world.[17]
1.3. Religious History:
1.3.1. Syncretism: The Hellenistic
period was called the time of syncretism because there was mixing of religions
especially the Greek and the oriental religions. The encounter began with the
increased mobility of the population at the beginning of the Hellenistic period
with the result that Greeks and oriental came to live much closer with each
other. Religious pluralism arises in which Greeks and other peoples lived side
by side, with their own religious traditions.[18]
The Greek and the oriental religions were local cults and none of these cults
would ever claim to be world religion since the belief that deities which were
bound to particular holy places was still alive. But this view was changed due
to influence of philosophy and intellectual enlightenment and mobility of the
population. Greek gods were bought to the east to be gods of the new Greek
cities and eastern deities and cults were bought to the west by slaves,
merchants, sailors.[19]
1.3.2. The Oracles: Oracles has significant
roles in the Hellenistic period. The
role of these oracles was limited to the area of sacral regulations. One would
inquire from oracles about the proper time for religious festivals, about
votive offerings, donations and all sorts of other matters which were
significant in those communities specifically under the jurisdiction of the
oracle. Though there was little room in the Hellenistic period for a political
role for the oracles, a different kind of prophecy developed to new heights of
significance. Sibyl oracles come into being in which Sibyl oracles were
prophetic women who resided in several places and who would utter ecstatic
predictions, mostly of doom, whether or not any prophecy had been requested.[20]
1.3.3. The Greek Mysteries:
The term mysteries were used for sacred rites in the cults of Demeter and some
other deities. Demeter cult in Eleusis was the most significant one which is
situated 30 kilometres west of Athens. Demeter was the ‘mother of grain’ or
sometime assume as ‘mother earth’. Her primary festival was the feast of sowing
in the spring to which in most cases only women were admitted to participate.[21]
Other Greek mysteries were Phyla, near Athens, the mysteries of Great Goddesses
of Megalopolis and the mysteries of Adania. Among other Greek mysteries, the
most famous was the sanctuary of the Cabiri in Samothrace which had its origin
in Phrygian. This female deity is worshipped as ‘the Great Gods of Samothrace’.
The sanctuary in Samothrace is engaged in missionary activities by its priests.[22]
1.3.4.
The Serapis and Isis: The cult of Egyptian gods was the
most Hellenized oriental religion of the Hellenistic period. Its basis was a
complex development of cults and myths which had by no means come to an end at
the time of the Greek conquest. Isis was the goddess of royal throne and thus
the mother of Horus, the mythical representation of the living Pharaoh. The
cult of Serapis was introduced on the orders of Ptolemy I of Egypt as a means
to unify the Greeks and the Egyptians. The Egyptian did not accept serapis
because the Greek Hellenized it from Oserapis.[23]
2. History of the Greco-Roman
Imperial Period:
The
Roman rule brings many significant and important developments for the people of
the times in many ways. We will look at some of the aspects of the political,
economic and religious history of the Greco-Roman Imperial Period as follows.
2.1. Political History:
2.1.1. Julio-Claudian Emperors: The
first five emperors of the Roman are known as Julio-Claudian emperors. Augustus
was the first Roman ruler, under whom the Roman imperium or the power of the
imperial state was thoroughly established. He ruled wisely and well. During his
reign a regular professional army was created and on retirement the veterans
were given bonus and settled in colonies in the provinces. To consolidate the
empire at large, Augustus took a census of the population and all property as a
basis for recruiting the army and for taxation.[24]
Tiberius succeeded Augustus and during his reign the Roman armies suffered
reverses in Germany with the result that he withdrew the frontier to Rhine. His
later years were clouded with troubles and he died in 37 CE. Caligula was made
Tiberius successor by the senate. During his reign he pardoned political
prisoners, reduced taxes, gave public entertainments. However, he began to show
sign of mental weakness. He demanded to be worshipped as god.[25]
After the death of Caligula, the senate select Claudius as the ruler. He was a
good scholar and that proved to be an abler ruler. Under his rule Rome became a
bureaucracy governed by committees and secretaries. He died in 54 CE leaving to
Nero the succession of the imperial throne. The first five year of Nero reign
was peaceful and successful but the ending part of his reign saw him indulge
his lustful bent. He offended Rome by building his Golden House at the centre
of the city after the great fire broke out in 64 CE. Nero was suspected of
having deliberately set it in order to make room for his new Golden House.[26]
2.1.2. Flavian Dynasty: The
ancient Roman imperial dynasty of Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian is
known as Flavian Dynasty. Vaspasian was fragile in his habits and vigorous in
his administration. He strengthened the frontiers by reducing dependent
principalities to the status of provinces. He built the famous Colosseum in
Rome and died in 79 CE leaving his office to Titus.[27]
Titus was brave ruler which makes him one of the most popular emperors that
Rome ever had. The catastrophic overthrow of Pompeii and Herculaneum occurred
during his reign. He appointed a commission and did his utmost to rescue as
many of the victims as possible. He even sold his private furniture to
contribute to the general need. He died in 81 CE and the senate conferred the
imperial power to his brother Domitian.[28]
Domitian was a thorough autocrat. He demanded worship for himself which the
Jews and Christians refused to worship. In 93 CE he executed some Christians
for refusing to offer sacrifice before his image. His last year of reign was a
nightmare and he died in 96 CE.
2.1.3. Herod Dynasty: Herod
the Great was an efficient ruler and clever politician who managed to survive
struggles for power in the higher level of Roman government. Secret police,
high taxes, free grain during famine and free clothing in calamities
characterized the administration of Herod the Great. His greatest contribution
to the Jews was beautification of temple in Jerusalem. The temple was decorated
with white marble, gold and jewels.[29]
Lacking their father’s ability and ambition, Herod’s sons rule over separate
parts of Palestine. Archelaus ruled over Judea and Samaria and he promoted the
building of public works. His rule was distasteful to his people and he was
deposed from his office and banished to Gaul after the Jews and Samaritans file
complaint against him to Rome. Herod
Philip ruled over Iturea, Trachonitis, Gaulanitis, Auranitis and Batania. He
followed his precedent as a builder, but in his dealing with his people he was
just and fair. Herod Antipas ruled over
Galille and Perea. He built a new capital on the shores of Galille and named
tiberias because the city was erected on the site of an ancient graveyard and
so he had to colonize it by force.[30]
Herod Agrippa I, grandson of Herod the great, executed James the apostle and
imprisoned Peter.[31]
2.2. Economic History:
2.2.1.
Agriculture: Roman Empire occupied the vast lands
surrounding the Mediterranean basin. There was a great gulf between the rich
and the poor in the Roman world. The
poor were everywhere. The mode of their living was farming, fishing, herding
and various crafts (pottery making, carpentry).[32]
Most people of the Greco-Roman society depended on agriculture for their
livelihood. For some family, they owned their own land and work there for their
living. In other cases, wealthy landholders with large estates leased the land
to tenant farmers, who paid them with part of the produce. The alluvial soil
and sufficient rain caused the land fertile. The agricultural land was too
limited and importing food was one source of their living. This serves a great
connecting link between the Greeks and the Romans in their occupation
especially in agriculture. The entire climate of the land was favourable for
agriculture and rearing livestock.[33]
2.2.2.
Industry: Manufacturing
was of great importance during the Greco-Roman period where the work was done
with human labor. The factories were private enterprises which employed people.
There was also mining and metal industry; they also had ceramics and glass
industries. Different kinds of books were also in demand during this period
which led to the introduction of paper industry as well.[34] Certain
types of goods were produced in particular localities like copper vessels,
linens and paper, small wares, furniture and household goods. Every small
village in the empire had its own workmen who provided for the needs of their
fellow townsmen. Although the empire had a large number of good roads, vehicles
were drawn by animals.[35]
2.2.3.
Finance: The standard coins in the empire were
the denarius and the gold aureus, or pound. One pound was worth forty denarii.
Many of the cities of the empire had the right to mint their own coinage. Money
changers did a thriving business in dealing with travellers. Banking was also
practiced. The banks were not subsidized by the state, but consisted usually of
private sectors. Borrowing, lending, discounting of notes and foreign exchange
were undertaken, and letters of credit were issued. Funds were often supplied to
the banks by private individuals.[36]
The monetary arrangement made by Alexander the Great remained unchanged in the
Seleucid period. Roman coinage appeared relatively late in the commerce of the
Mediterranean world. Augustus made three metal monetary system, gold, silver,
copper.[37]
2.2.4.
Transportation & Travel: The rule of the Romans
over the provinces was greatly facilitated by its excellent system of roads.
The Romans built their road as straight as possible, making cuts through the
hills and using viaducts to bridge valleys and streams. The roads were more
than fifteen feet wide, but they are smooth. Along these roads moved the armies
and caravans of commerce. Several of these roads were famous especially the
Appian Way was the main line of communication between Rome and the south of
Italy. Most of the transportation was by water rather than land. The
Mediterranean Sea abounded in good ports. Alexandria was the chief port, since
it was the outlet for the crop of Egypt.[38]
2.3. Religious History:
2.3.1.
Greco-Roman Pantheon: With the growth of the military
state and the consequent contacts with Greek civilization, came a fusion of
deities under the dominating influence of the Greek pantheon. Jupiter (god of
the sky) was identified with the Greek Zeus, Neptune (god of the sea) with
Poseidon, Pluto (god of the underworld) with Hades and many more. New temples
were erected and new priesthoods were founded under Augustus. Many worshippers
whether Greek or Roman followed and paid them homage.[39] It
was believed that household gods were to protect the house and therefore they
perform rituals to please their gods. Other deities dwelt in temples, sacred
groves often represented by statues or other symbols. Worshippers brought them
gifts and offered animal sacrifices burnt on altars. If gods were not honoured,
it was believed that calamity might fall on the community. Honouring gods
ensure the well being of the state.[40]
2.3.2.
Emperor worship: The emperor worship grew gradually out
of the increasing ascription of superhuman honors to the emperor and out of the
desire to centralize the allegiance of the people in him. Julius Caesar was the
first Roman accorded such an honour and he was called Divus Julius after his
death. From Augustus time, each of the emperors were deified at his death by
vote of the senate.[41]
Caligula ordered his statue to be set up in the temple at Jerusalem but the
people cannot regard it because he was considered to be insane. Domitian at the
close of the first century did a reigning emperor attempt to compel his
subjects to worship him. Christians refused to participate in the worship of
emperor which led to persecution.[42]
2.3.3.
Mystery Religions: The mystery religions were mostly
of eastern origin. The cult of Cybele (the great mother), came from Asia,
Osiris from Egypt, Mithraism originated from Persia. Each of these gods was
centered about a god who had died and was resuscitated.[43]
Osiris was the gods of the waters, fields and plants. He triumphs over the
death and became the king of the underworld. From his death and resurrection
the ancient Egyptians got their hope of immortality.[44]
Mithras was an Indo-Aryan god whose name meant ‘covenant’. He was born from a
rock on 25 December.[45] He
is the guardian of the observance of contracts between individuals and
covenants between nations. It later became the supreme god of a mystery
religion throughout the Roman Empire. Mithrakana, a great festival was named
and dedicated after him and was celebrated annually. On the coins of the Kushan
Empire he is named as Mioro and is depicted as a solar deity. He is also a
deity of light.[46]
2.3.4.
Gnosticism: Gnosticism derives its meaning from the
Greek word which is ‘knowledge’. It points to the concept of salvation through
knowledge. Their important element is cosmological dualism which is an
opposition between the spiritual world and the evil.[47]
Gnosticism was a religious philosophy of metaphysical and radical dualism which
taught that God was spirit and good, and that matter and the world were evil.
Therefore God could not have created physical world, because good cannot create
evil. For Gnostics, knowledge was seen as the key to free one’s true divine
self from this evil fleshly prison.[48]
Conclusion:
The
history of the Hellenistic period in the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean
region brings about many developments in various fields. The spread of Greek
language allowed Greek literature to spread throughout the region and even
today the Greek language has impact many of the countries of the world. It also
allows the Greek culture and language to spread beyond Greece and to the rest
of the world. They made trade much easier and the transportation in land as
well as on sea. Many new inventions like the industries, coinage system,
banking system etc were brought up which were very much beneficial for the
people of the times. Likewise, the Greco-Roman period was saw a number of
changes brought in by the Roman emperors in different ways in terms of
political, economic and religious. The means of transportation and travel was
one important aspects of the Roman rule which gives an easy means of connecting
one region to the other. Looking and tracing back the history of both the
Hellenistic-oriental period and Greco-Roman period, we can see the radical
change taking place before and after their period. Their influence had still
impacted the present day world in terms of language, transportation etc. Thus,
the history of these two periods plays a significant role in the history of the
world in political, economic and religious area.
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[1] Helmut
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[2] H. Joseph Lalfakmawia, General Introduction to Post Biblical
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[12] Delbert
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[46] Stephen L. Harris, The New Testament: A Student’s Introduction
(California: Mayfield, 1988), 31.
[47] E.M.Yamauchi,
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